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Hypothetical particle decay process of a proton
Proton decay is the key process to test the stability of matter and baryon number conservation and has long been a subject of both theoretical and experimental
Proton_decay
Subatomic particle with positive charge
Protons have a positive charge distribution, which decays approximately exponentially, with a root mean square charge radius of about 0.8 fm. Protons
Proton
Type of radioactive decay
Positron emission, beta plus decay, or β+ decay is a subtype of radioactive decay called beta decay, in which a proton inside a radionuclide nucleus is
Positron_emission
Type of radioactive decay
example, beta decay of a neutron transforms it into a proton by the emission of an electron accompanied by an antineutrino; or, conversely a proton is converted
Beta_decay
Aspect of physical cosmology
cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. If proton decay is correct, which currently remains unproven and against the fundamental
Future of an expanding universe
Future_of_an_expanding_universe
Type of radioactive decay
Proton emission (also known as proton radioactivity) is a rare type of radioactive decay in which a proton is ejected from a nucleus. Proton emission can
Proton_emission
Grand Unified Theory proposed in 1974
yields a mechanism for proton decay, and the rate of proton decay can be predicted from the dynamics of the model. However, proton decay has not yet been observed
Georgi–Glashow_model
Japanese neutrino observatory
observatory was designed to detect high-energy neutrinos, to search for proton decay, study solar and atmospheric neutrinos, and keep watch for supernovae
Super-Kamiokande
Decay of a neutron when outside a nucleus
decays via the weak interaction and may be called the simplest example of beta decay. The decay results in the stable resultant products of a proton,
Free_neutron_decay
Neutrino observatory in Japan
(also Super-K or SK) and T2K experiments, it is designed to search for proton decay and detect neutrinos from natural sources such as the Earth, the atmosphere
Hyper-Kamiokande
Comprehensive physical model
unification might be detected through indirect observations of the following: proton decay, neutron-antineutron oscillations, electric dipole moments of elementary
Grand_Unified_Theory
Scientific projections regarding the far future
Earth survives when the Sun expands to become a red giant and whether proton decay will be the eventual end of all matter in the universe. All projections
Timeline_of_the_far_future
Abelian charge found in electroweak theory
Hence neutron decay conserves baryon number B and lepton number L separately, so also the difference B − L is conserved. Proton decay is a prediction
Weak_hypercharge
Emissions from unstable atomic nuclei
artificial nuclei decay with the emission of single protons, double protons, and other combinations. Beta decay transforms a neutron into proton or vice versa
Radioactive_decay
Quantum number associated with certain grand unification theories
Y_{\text{W}}.} Proton decay is a hypothetical form of radioactive decay, predicted by many grand unification theories. During proton decay, the common baryonic
X_(charge)
Ratio of neutrons to protons in an atomic nucleus
protons have quite huge short-range, repulsive forces. Processes of decay such as Beta minus (-) and Beta plus (+) decay also including Alpha decay allow
Neutron–proton_ratio
Nuclear fusion reaction
much more common result of proton–proton reactions within the star, and diprotons almost immediately decay back into two protons. Since the conversion of
Proton–proton_chain
Theoretical stellar remnant
1025 years. If protons are not stable, white dwarfs will also be kept warm by energy released from proton decay. For a hypothetical proton lifetime of 1037
Black_dwarf
primary problem with these color triplet Higgs is that they can mediate proton decay in supersymmetric theories that are only suppressed by two powers of
Doublet–triplet splitting problem
Doublet–triplet_splitting_problem
Discrete symmetry in certain supersymmetric models
together, they lead to proton decay. Thus there are further maximal bounds on values of the couplings from maximal bounds on proton decay rate. Without baryon
R-parity
Type of radioactive decay
physics, double beta decay (ββ decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which two neutrons are simultaneously transformed into two protons, or vice versa,
Double_beta_decay
Atomic species
nuclear species) are a class of atoms characterized by their number of protons, Z, their number of neutrons, N, and their nuclear energy state. The word
Nuclide
Atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable
been observed to decay, and are classically considered stable. Of these, 90 are believed to be absolutely stable except to proton decay (which has never
Radionuclide
Component of an atomic nucleus
undergoes radioactive decay. The proton and neutron are in a scheme of categories being at once fermions, hadrons and baryons. The proton carries a positive
Nucleon
Physical constant
proton decay predict that the proton has a half life on the order of at least 1032 years. To date, there is no experimental evidence of proton decay.);
Proton-to-electron_mass_ratio
neighboring nuclides (TNN). Unless proton decay occurs; this and 3He are the only stable nuclides with more protons than neutrons. Produced in Big Bang
Isotopes_of_hydrogen
Underground physics laboratory in Japan
Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment. It was a large water Cherenkov detector designed to search for proton decay. To observe the decay of a particle with
Kamioka_Observatory
Nuclide that does not undergo radioactive decay
(both protons and neutrons) exhibit a lower energy state when their number is even, rather than odd. This stability tends to prevent beta decay (in two
Stable_isotope
Grand Unified Theory proposed in 1973
triplets have to be really heavy in order to prevent triplet-mediated proton decays. Among the solutions for it is the Dimopoulos–Wilczek mechanism, or
SO(10)
Spontaneous breakdown of an unstable subatomic particle into other particles
Takumi; Omura, Yuji (2016). "Threshold corrections to dimension-six proton decay operators in non-minimal SUSY SU (5) GUTs". Nuclear Physics B. 910: 1–22
Particle_decay
Subatomic particle
by other atoms. When a cosmic ray proton impacts atomic nuclei in the upper atmosphere, pions are created. These decay within a relatively short distance
Muon
Hypothetical particle
type) are around 1 TeV/c2 (i.e., about 1000 times the proton mass). By definition, leptoquarks decay directly into a quark and a lepton or an antilepton
Leptoquark
Prediction in nuclear physics
observed to decay); generally, as the number of protons increases, stable nuclei have a higher neutron–proton ratio (more neutrons per proton). The last
Island_of_stability
Hypothetical elementary particles
(constituents of protons and others) to leptons (such as positrons), allowing violation of the conservation of baryon number thus permitting proton decay. However
X_and_Y_bosons
Hypothesized early universe process
that a large volume of material will occasionally exhibit a spontaneous proton decay, which has not been observed. Therefore, the imbalance between matter
Baryogenesis
Type of radioactive decay
a helium-4 atom, which consists of two protons and two neutrons. For example, uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay to form thorium-234. While alpha particles
Alpha_decay
History and future of the universe
heavy particles annihilated each other or decayed, eventually leaving behind a plasma that was dominated by protons, neutrons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos
Chronology_of_the_universe
Subatomic particle with no charge
particles; each is composed of three quarks. A free neutron spontaneously decays to a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino, with a mean lifetime of about 15
Neutron
Process in which a proton-rich nuclide absorbs an inner atomic electron
not enough decay energy is available to allow it, and thus electron capture is the sole decay mode. For example, rubidium-83 (37 protons, 46 neutrons)
Electron_capture
Atoms of the same element, but different mass
radioactive, with extremely long half-lives (discounting the possibility of proton decay, which would make all nuclides ultimately unstable). Some stable nuclides
Isotope
Number of heavy particles in the atomic nucleus
(4 2He2+ ): On the other hand, carbon-14 decays by beta decay, whereby one neutron is transmuted into a proton with the emission of an electron and an
Mass_number
Black holes appearing from quantum spacetime fluctuations
Planck scale. If virtual black holes exist, they provide a mechanism for proton decay. This is because when a black hole's mass increases via mass falling
Virtual_black_hole
Ionizing radiation
Unstable atomic nuclei with an excess of protons may undergo β+ decay, also called positron decay, where a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron
Beta_particle
Topics referred to by the same term
also involves neutron decay Search for "neutron decay" on Wikipedia. Radioactivity Particle decay Proton decay Nucleon decay All pages with titles beginning
Neutron_decay
Particle detector in Minnesota, US
search for proton decay, although its data were also used to investigate the properties of neutrinos. It found no evidence of proton decay, but it did
Soudan_2
Subatomic particle having no substructure
unification is the existence of X and Y bosons, which cause proton decay. The non-observation of proton decay at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino observatory rules
Elementary_particle
Elementary particles that are force carriers
and leptons, hence violating conservation of baryon number and causing proton decay. Such bosons would be even more massive than W and Z bosons due to symmetry
Gauge_boson
Soviet nuclear physicist and human rights activist (1921–1989)
give a theoretical motivation for proton decay. Proton decay was suggested by Eugene Wigner in 1949 and 1952. Proton decay experiments had been performed
Andrei_Sakharov
Mechanism of beta decay proposed in 1933
explains beta decay of a neutron by direct coupling of a neutron with an electron, a neutrino (later determined to be an antineutrino) and a proton. Fermi first
Fermi's_interaction
Particle smaller than an atom
Except for the proton and neutron, all other hadrons are unstable and decay into other particles in microseconds or less. A proton is made of two up
Subatomic_particle
Hypothetical vacuum, less stable than true vacuum
95% confidence. Decay to smaller vacuum expectation value, resulting in decrease of Casimir effect and destabilization of protons. Decay to vacuum with
False_vacuum
Interaction between subatomic particles
example, during beta-minus decay, a down quark within a neutron is changed into an up quark, thus converting the neutron to a proton and resulting in the emission
Weak_interaction
Characterization of nuclide stability
they emit single protons or single neutrons. Regions of instability within the valley at high atomic number also include radioactive decay by alpha radiation
Valley_of_stability
Particle accelerator at CERN, Switzerland
LHC primarily collides proton beams, but it can also accelerate beams of heavy ions, such as in lead–lead collisions and proton–lead collisions. The LHC's
Large_Hadron_Collider
calorimeter whose primary purpose was to search for proton decay. It set a lower limit on the lifetime of the proton of 1.6×1030 years as well as upper limits on
Soudan_1
Graphical presentation of transitions occurring in decay of a radioactive substance
that of cobalt (27). In beta decay, the proton number increases by one. For a positron decay and also for an alpha decay (see below), the oblique arrow
Decay_scheme
Nuclear physics classification method
types of nuclear decay. Unstable nuclides with a nonoptimal number of neutrons or protons decay by beta decay (including positron decay), electron capture
Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei
methods ("bottle" versus "beam"). Proton decay and spin crisis: Is the proton fundamentally stable? Or does it decay with a finite lifetime as predicted
List of unsolved problems in physics
List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
Series of radioactive decays
stability, mostly by alpha decay. The other common way for isotopes with a high neutron to proton ratio (n/p) to decay is beta decay, in which the nuclide
Decay_chain
Smallest unit of a chemical element
Thus, gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay. Other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters
Atom
How to create matter from fundamentals particles to galaxies
manifest themselves in laboratory as proton decay or as creations of electrons in the so-called neutrinoless double beta decay. The latter case occurs if the
Matter_creation
Hypothetical conversion between particles
Neutron–antineutron oscillations complement proton decay as a probe of baryon-number violation. While proton decay would violate baryon number by one unit
Neutron–antineutron oscillations
Neutron–antineutron_oscillations
Isotope of iron
stars in, roughly, 101500 years, assuming an expanding universe without proton decay. Isotopes of iron Iron star "Standard Atomic Weights: Iron". CIAAW. 2000
Iron-56
Isotope of bismuth
half-life of any nuclide that undergoes α-decay (alpha decay); the decay product is thallium-205. It has 83 protons and a magic number of 126 neutrons, and
Bismuth-209
Set of nuclides that cannot undergo beta decay
Beta-decay stable isobars are the set of nuclides which cannot undergo beta decay, that is, the transformation of a neutron to a proton or a proton to a
Beta-decay_stable_isobars
Particle detector in Ohio, 1982–1991
(see Kamiokande II), it was built primarily with the goal of observing proton decay, but it achieved greater fame through neutrino observation, particularly
Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven (detector)
Irvine–Michigan–Brookhaven_(detector)
Physics concept expressed as E = mc²
monopoles, and in some models of grand unification, these monopoles catalyze proton decay, a process known as the Callan–Rubakov effect. This process would be
Mass–energy_equivalence
Atomic nuclei decay delimiter
will eventually lead to a newly formed nucleus that immediately decays by emitting a proton (or neutron). Colloquially speaking, the nucleon has leaked or
Nuclear_drip_line
Under-construction physics experiment facility in the United States
(0.93 mi) deep underground with no direct view of the sky. Search for proton decay, which has never been observed but is predicted by theories that unify
Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment
Deep_Underground_Neutrino_Experiment
Isotope of aluminium
small amount of it is produced by collisions of atoms with cosmic ray protons. Decay of aluminium-26 also produces gamma rays and X-rays. The x-rays and
Aluminium-26
Quantum number relating the quantity of quarks and antiquarks in a system
lepton numbers. Proton decay would be an example of such a process taking place, but has never been observed. Neutrinoless double beta decay is a reaction
Baryon_number
Collision of a particle and its antiparticle
proton is a composite particle consisting of three "valence quarks" and an indeterminate number of "sea quarks" bound by gluons. Thus, when a proton encounters
Annihilation
Water Cherenkov detector experiment
nature of neutrino interactions. This experiment studies phenomena like proton decay, and neutrino oscillations, by analyzing neutrino interactions in gadolinium-loaded
Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment
Accelerator_Neutrino_Neutron_Interaction_Experiment
Quantum mechanical phenomenon
effective. Quantum tunnelling may be one of the mechanisms of hypothetical proton decay. Chemical reactions in the interstellar medium occur at extremely low
Quantum_tunnelling
Russian physicist (1955–2022)
gravity. Rubakov first came to prominence for monopole catalysis of proton decay, a remarkable insight on contemporary field theory. 't Hooft and Polyakov
Valery_Rubakov
Field of physics that studies atomic interactions
neutrons and protons: too few or too many neutrons (in relation to the number of protons) will cause it to decay. For example, in beta decay, a nitrogen-16
Nuclear_physics
American politician (born 1955)
The title of his doctoral dissertation is "An experimental limit on proton decay: p → p o s i t r o n + π 0 {\displaystyle p\rightarrow \mathrm {positron}
Bill_Foster_(politician)
Quantum number; the difference between the baryon and lepton numbers
is always conserved. One hypothetical example is proton decay where a proton (B = 1, L = 0) would decay into a pion (B = 0, L = 0) and positron (B = 0,
B_−_L
Subatomic particle
Antineutron Oscillations" (PDF). NNN 2002 Workshop on "Large Detectors for Proton Decay, Supernovae and Atmospheric Neutrinos and Low Energy Neutrinos from High
Antineutron
phase transition Geomagnetic storm False vacuum decay Gamma-ray burst Heat death of the universe Proton decay Virtual black hole Impact event Asteroid impact
List_of_apocalyptic_films
Minimum energy required to separate particles within a nucleus
radioactive decay to become another element. The hydrogen nucleus contains just one proton. Its isotope deuterium (a.k.a. heavy hydrogen), contains a proton and
Nuclear_binding_energy
Comparison of a wide range of timescales
2007. Nishino, H. et al. (Super-K Collaboration) (2009). "Search for Proton Decay via p+ → e+ π0 and p+ → μ+ π0 in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical
Orders_of_magnitude_(time)
Isotope of nickel
7 keV per nucleon; hence the future of an expanding universe without proton decay includes iron stars rather than "nickel stars". Isotopes of nickel Wang
Nickel-62
Subatomic particle
the antiparticle of the proton. Antiprotons are stable, but they are typically short-lived, since any collision with a proton will cause both particles
Antiproton
Type of particle detector
scattering, but the goals evolved to measure solar or cosmic neutrinos or proton decay. In 1977, Carlo Rubbia independently, and nearly simultaneously, proposed
Time_projection_chamber
Phenomenon in which a neutrino changes lepton flavor as it travels
unification of electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces, a few experiments on proton decay followed in the 1980s. Large detectors such as IMB, MACRO, and Kamiokande
Neutrino_oscillation
Nuclear reaction between an electron antineutrino and proton
physics, inverse beta decay, commonly abbreviated to IBD, is a nuclear reaction involving an electron antineutrino scattering off a proton, creating a positron
Inverse_beta_decay
Japanese physicist
physics. The Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiment was designed to detect proton decay. It established strict limits on the proton-decay process, and could detect
Yoji_Totsuka
Theory of forces and subatomic particles
1140/epjc/s10052-012-2205-9. S2CID 15052448. Y. Hayato; et al. (1999). "Search for Proton Decay through p → νK+ in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical Review
Standard_Model
Atom of the element hydrogen
spectroscopy. Tritium (3H) contains two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus and is not stable, decaying with a half-life of 12.32 years. Because of its short
Hydrogen_atom
Grand Unified Theory proposed in 1974
Jogesh Pati and Abdus Salam. This model doesn't predict gauge mediated proton decay (unless it is embedded within an even larger GUT group). As mentioned
Pati–Salam_model
Cosmological model
all other particles to annihilate with them. As Penrose points out, proton decay is a possibility contemplated in various speculative extensions of the
Conformal_cyclic_cosmology
Subatomic particle; lightest meson
5×10−17 seconds). Charged pions most often decay into muons and muon neutrinos, while neutral pions generally decay into gamma rays. The exchange of virtual
Pion
Deep mine cosmic ray neutrino observations (1960–1992)
Ito, Osaka City University, Japan, performed experimental studies on proton decay and indirectly observed the scatter of muons. Murali and Balasubramaniam
Particle experiments at Kolar Gold Fields
Particle_experiments_at_Kolar_Gold_Fields
Extremely light particle produced by the Sun
neutrino observation is cosmic ray observation as well as searching for proton decay. In 1998, the Super-Kamiokande was the site of the Super-Kamiokande experiment
Solar_neutrino
Book by Fred Adams
hypothesize that protons will begin to decay (violating the conservation of baryon number given by the Standard Model). If proton decay takes place, the
The_Five_Ages_of_the_Universe
Hypothetical global-scale disaster risk
Big Rip Cosmological phase transition False vacuum decay Heat death of the universe Proton decay Virtual black hole Religious or superstitious 2011 end
Global_catastrophic_risk
Imbalance of matter and antimatter in the observable universe
account for baryon violation in baryogenesis, such events (including proton decay) can occur in Grand Unification Theories (GUTs) and supersymmetric (SUSY)
Baryon_asymmetry
Metastable excited state of a nuclide
a metastable state of an atomic nucleus in which one or more nucleons (protons or neutrons) occupy excited state levels (higher energy levels). "Metastable"
Nuclear_isomer
Hypothetical object that potentially explains accelerating universal expansion
the event horizon decays into successively lighter particles. Nearing the event horizon, environmental effects accelerate proton decay. This may account
Dark-energy_star
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