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Informal fallacy
Proof by assertion, sometimes informally referred to as proof by repeated assertion, is an informal fallacy in which a proposition is repeatedly restated
Proof_by_assertion
essentially dissimilar concepts as though they were essentially similar. Proof by assertion – a proposition is repeatedly restated regardless of contradiction;
List_of_fallacies
Topics referred to by the same term
interfaces for computer software Logical assertion, a statement that asserts that a certain premise is true Proof by assertion, an informal fallacy in which a
Assertion
Assertion without proof
said it himself") is an assertion without proof, or a dogmatic expression of opinion. The fallacy of defending a proposition by baldly asserting that it
Ipse_dixit
Discussion that has continued to the point of nausea
Carthago delenda est Filibuster Godwin's law List of Latin phrases Proof by assertion Rumination (psychology) Sealioning Sisyphus Thought-terminating cliché
Ad_nauseam
Type of informal fallacy
the nature of refutation". To refute an assertion, Aristotle says we must prove its contradictory; the proof, consequently, of a proposition which stood
Irrelevant_conclusion
Erroneous method of proof
In logic and mathematics, proof by example (sometimes known as inappropriate generalization) is a logical fallacy whereby the validity of a statement is
Proof_by_example
Logical fallacy
made by stating or reiterating that the argument is absurd, without providing further argumentation. This theory is closely tied to proof by assertion due
Appeal_to_the_stone
Logical fallacy in which the conclusion provides the premise
defect in an argument whereby the premises are just as much in need of proof or evidence as the conclusion. As a consequence, the argument becomes a
Circular_reasoning
Form of incorrect argument and informal fallacy
is a fallacy of relevance: it fails to address the proposition in question by misrepresenting the opposing position. For example: Quoting an opponent's
Straw_man
Informal logical fallacy
publicly retreating from the initial, falsified a posteriori assertion offering a modified assertion that definitionally excludes a targeted unwanted counterexample
No_true_Scotsman
Formal fallacy
an attempt to win favor by exploiting the audience's preexisting spite or disdain for something else, it is called guilt by association or an appeal
Association_fallacy
Logical fallacy
is fallible. While all sources agree this is not a valid form of logical proof and therefore obtaining knowledge in this way is fallible, there is disagreement
Argument_from_authority
Type of trolling or harassment
considered harassment by opponents of the forum and that the term sealioning was used to silence legitimate requests for proof. In 2021, Maclean's compared
Sealioning
Statistical fallacy
property by a factor other than its actual cause, the person is likely committing a Texas sharpshooter fallacy. The fallacy is characterized by the failure
Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy
Type of informal fallacy
tower on a mound (the Motte) is surrounded by an area of land (the Bailey) which in turn is encompassed by some sort of a barrier such as a ditch. Being
Motte-and-bailey_fallacy
Fallacy of treating an abstraction as if it were a real thing
regarded as a fallacy. A potential consequence of reification is exemplified by Goodhart's law, where changes in the measurement of a phenomenon are mistaken
Reification_(fallacy)
Informal fallacy
coined by philosopher John Locke in the late 17th century. In debates, appealing to ignorance is sometimes an attempt to shift the burden of proof. There
Argument_from_ignorance
Evidence relying on personal testimony
rather than rigorous or scientific analysis" "information passed along by word-of-mouth but not documented scientifically" "evidence that comes from
Anecdotal_evidence
Question containing an unjustified assumption
beaten their wife at some time in the past. Thus, these facts are presupposed by the question, and in this case an entrapment, because it narrows the respondent
Loaded_question
Fallacious approach to mislead an audience
used in argumentation inadvertently. The expression was popularized in 1807 by the English polemicist William Cobbett, who told a story of having used a
Red_herring
Internet adage about Nazi comparisons
with statistically meaningful frequency in Reddit discussions. Promulgated by American attorney and author Mike Godwin in 1990, Godwin's law originally
Godwin's_law
Logic founded on unproven premises
is, therefore, committed when a proposition which requires proof is assumed without proof." Davies (1915), 572. Welton (1905), 280–282. In Molière's Le
Begging_the_question
Fallacy of claiming the majority is always correct
theorem Scientific consensus Social proof Wisdom of the crowd These ideas are paraphrased from this presentation by authors Andrew Potter and Joseph Heath
Argumentum_ad_populum
beliefs or characteristics, when the apparent contradiction is explained by distinct subgroups holding differing beliefs or characteristics. Claiming
Muhammad_Wang_fallacy
Fallacy regarding hypocrisy
a rhetorical technique that intends to discredit the opponent's argument by attacking the opponent's own personal behaviour and actions as being inconsistent
Tu_quoque
Logical fallacy of inconsistency
oil." The "false equivalence" is the comparison between things differing by many orders of magnitude: Deepwater Horizon spilled 210 million US gal (790 million L)
False_equivalence
Fallacy of assumption of causation based on sequence of events
X, event Y must have been caused by event X". It is a fallacy in which an event is presumed to have been caused by a closely preceding event merely on
Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc
Exclusive reliance on quantitative observations in decision-making
every week on Vietnam, and FitzGerald, an old Asia hand, was made uneasy by McNamara's insistence on quantifying everything, of seeing it in terms of
McNamara_fallacy
Attacking the person rather than their argument
rather than the substance of the argument itself. This avoids genuine debate by creating a diversion often using a totally irrelevant, but often highly charged
Ad_hominem
Misleading use of a term with multiple meanings
In logic, equivocation ("calling two different things by the same name") is an informal fallacy resulting from the failure to define one's terms, or knowingly
Equivocation
Formal fallacy, aka Linda Problem
problems that reliably elicit the conjunction fallacy. The original report by Tversky & Kahneman (later republished as a book chapter) described four problems
Conjunction_fallacy
Argument based on lack of statements
their presence. In the field of classical studies, it often refers to the assertion that an author is ignorant of a subject, based on the lack of references
Argument_from_silence
Proof assistant
expression of mathematical assertions, mechanical checking of proofs of these assertions, assists in finding formal proofs using proof automation routines and
Rocq
Formal fallacy
{\displaystyle q} Where ⊢ {\displaystyle {}\vdash {}} denotes a logical assertion. The fallacy lies in concluding that one disjunct must be false because
Affirming_a_disjunct
Psychological defense mechanism
apparent logical reasons are given to justify behavior that is motivated by unconscious instinctual impulses. It is an attempt to find reasons for behaviors
Rationalization_(psychology)
Informal fallacy in comparing actualities with ideals
particular problem. A closely related concept is the "perfect solution fallacy". By creating a false dichotomy that presents one option which is obviously advantageous—while
Nirvana_fallacy
Logical fallacy
else's argument on the basis that the same idea was promoted or practised by Adolf Hitler or the Nazi Party. Arguments can be termed reductio ad Hitlerum
Reductio_ad_Hitlerum
Philosophical expression
criticised by scholar Gregory S. Kavka writing in the Journal of Business Ethics. Kavka refers back to philosophical concepts of retribution by Thomas Hobbes
Two_wrongs_don't_make_a_right
Management attitude for innovation or development
research, standards, or knowledge from external origins. It is usually adopted by social, corporate, or institutional cultures. Since 2014, management research
Not_invented_here
Rhetorical argument
and a slippery slope argument. A slippery slope event can be represented by a series of conditional statements, namely: If p then q; if q then r; if r
Slippery_slope
Fallacy where validity is determined by origin
fallacy Bulverism – Type of logical fallacy Etymological fallacy – An assertion that the historical meaning of the word is its only true meaning "Not
Genetic_fallacy
Apparent, but false, correlation between causally-independent variables
correlation of ratios.) Another example of a spurious relationship can be seen by examining a city's ice cream sales. The sales might be highest when the rate
Spurious_relationship
Faulty deductive reasoning due to a logical flaw
Statement contradicted by facts and reality Mathematical fallacy, also known as Invalid proof – Certain type of mistaken proof Modus tollens – Rule of
Formal_fallacy
Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
form can be shown to be a logical truth by either (a) showing that it is a tautology or (b) by means of a proof procedure. The corresponding conditional
Argument
Metaphor originating from goal sports
when video published by Aftenposten showed Viking FK's goalkeeper Patrik Gunnarsson reducing his goal size by moving the goalposts by 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in)
Moving_the_goalposts
Mathematical use of "for all" and "there exists"
Language Proof and Logic. CSLI (University of Chicago Press) and New York: Seven Bridges Press. A gentle introduction to first-order logic by two first-rate
Quantifier_(logic)
Unclear communication
Obfuscation is the obscuring of the intended meaning of communication by making the message difficult to understand, usually with confusing and ambiguous
Obfuscation
Question that has a built-in supposition
fallacy, or many questions fallacy, is context dependent; a presupposition by itself does not have to be a fallacy. It is committed when someone asks a
Complex_question
Rhetorical tactic and potential fallacy
Machine "Of the Colours, or Common Opinions concerning Pleasure." Chap. XVI Archived 4 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine "Of Proofs Inartificial."
Appeal_to_nature
Type of logical fallacy
making it appear foolish and contrary to common sense. This is typically done by mocking the argument's representative foundation in an uncharitable and oversimplified
Appeal_to_ridicule
Logical fallacy
example offered by Alan Turing in the article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence": If each man had a definite set of rules of conduct by which he regulated
Denying_the_antecedent
Internet rage incitement technique
related terms rage-seeding and rage-farming specifically describe the process by which content creators intentionally sow outrage to harvest (farm) online
Rage-baiting
Latin oratorical phrase
peace Death to America Death to Israel Debellatio Genocide No quarter Proof by assertion List of Latin phrases Est is the third-person singular present active
Carthago_delenda_est
Informal logical fallacy
Pascal wrote that "People [...] arrive at their beliefs not on the basis of proof, but on the basis of what they find attractive." Baruch Spinoza characterized
Appeal_to_emotion
Branch of logic
are proved by applying deduction rules to these axioms. See § Syntactic proof via axioms. Natural deduction is a syntactic method of proof that emphasizes
Propositional_logic
Overused, unoriginal phrase or opinion
has taken on a more technical meaning, referring to an expression imposed by conventionalized linguistic usage. The term, which is typically pejorative
Cliché
Conclusion made on the basis of one or few instances of a phenomenon
basis of one or a few instances of that phenomenon. It is similar to a proof by example in mathematics. It is an example of jumping to conclusions. For
Faulty_generalization
Type of fallacy in modal logic
simply by getting married; if he does so, b) is no longer true and thus not subject to the tautology a). In this case, c) has unwarranted necessity by assuming
Modal_fallacy
Type of logical fallacy
said argument is actually correct) by attacking the speaker or the speaker's motive. The term Bulverism was coined by C. S. Lewis (after "its imaginary
Bulverism
Advertising term
advertising, a bald assertion in advertising (or non-establishment claim) is a subcategory of a false advertising claim. A bald assertion is a statement used
Bald_assertion
Logical fallacy
lies, misdirection, or misinterpreted information to make its point. Assertions made under specious reasoning often appear or are generally accepted to
Specious_reasoning
1995 publication in mathematics
Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is a proof by British mathematician Andrew Wiles of a special case of the modularity theorem for elliptic curves
Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem
Wiles's_proof_of_Fermat's_Last_Theorem
Type of informal fallacy
presented by another. Example: "Before you listen to my opponent, may I remind you that he has been in jail." Therefore, the claims made by person A will
Poisoning_the_well
Logical paradox from vague predicates
too little for human eyesight to be able to distinguish between them. Then by induction on this premise, humans would not be able to distinguish between
Sorites_paradox
Form of mathematical proof
take infinitely many values. The result is a rigorous proof of the statement, not an assertion of its probability. According to David E. Joyce, there
Mathematical_induction
Obligation on a party to prove their case
case, the claim will be dismissed. A "burden of proof" is a party's duty to prove a disputed assertion or charge, and includes the burden of production
Burden_of_proof_(law)
Deductive fallacy of circularity where the person refuses to believe the argument
in this fallacy is either to make assertions with no consideration of objections or to simply dismiss objections by calling them excuses, conjecture,
Invincible_ignorance_fallacy
Type of fallacious argument (logical fallacy)
ISBN 978-1260091991. Lay, Steven (2014). Introduction to Analysis with Proof, 5th edition. Pearson. ISBN 978-0321747471. Hurley, Patrick J. (2012). A
Affirming_the_consequent
Form of incorrect argument in natural language
because no argument is made, e.g. because no reasons are cited or no assertion is made. The core idea of arguments is that the premises support the conclusion
Informal_fallacy
Fallacy of inferring on the whole from a part
jobs. An individual worker may become more productive by specializing in making, say, hatpins, but by satisfying the wants of many other individuals for
Fallacy_of_composition
the range 1 ≤ a ≤ p − 1. Indeed, if the previous assertion holds for such a, multiplying both sides by a yields the original form of the theorem, a p ≡
Proofs of Fermat's little theorem
Proofs_of_Fermat's_little_theorem
Formation of beliefs based on what might be pleasing to imagine
was able to replicate the results found by Bruner and Goodman, the New Look approach was mostly abandoned by the 1970s because the experiments were riddled
Wishful_thinking
Informal logical fallacy
cause Slippery slope Texas sharpshooter Appeals Law/Legality Stone / Proof by assertion Consequences Argumentum ad baculum Wishful thinking Emotion Children
Argument_from_incredulity
Informal fallacy
right is irrelevant to whether one's assertion is true or false. Where an objection to a belief is made, the assertion of the right to an opinion side-steps
I'm_entitled_to_my_opinion
Distraction technique and anti-debate tactic
2022-09-14. MacLachlan, Alice (May 10, 2022). "Tone-Policing and the Assertion of Authority". Blog of the APA. Archived from the original on 2022-05-27
Tone_policing
Mistakenly drawing statistical inference from independent events
the Monte Carlo Casino in 1913. The gambler's fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a fair coin. The outcomes in different tosses
Gambler's_fallacy
Type of formal fallacy
least one member of the class exists, an assumption which is not established by the premises. In modern logic, the presupposition that a class has members
Existential_fallacy
Formal fallacy in statistical interpretation
likelihood. From a statistical point of view, these ideas can be unified by specifying proper statistical models to make formal inferences, using aggregate
Ecological_fallacy
Error in numerical data
figures used in the presentation of data should be limited to what is warranted by the precision of those data. For example, if an instrument can be read to
False_precision
Fallacy in which validity is determined based on novelty
needed] (the previous product may have been created by an expert who has since been replaced by a neophyte); fallibility (while building the new product
Appeal_to_novelty
Fallacy that since an argument contains a logical fallacy, its conclusion must be false
English. The fact that Alice's argument was fallacious is not, in itself, proof that her conclusion is false. Charlie: Bob's argument that Ginger is not
Argument_from_fallacy
Idea that a concept is ill-defined, and therefore cannot be discussed
kept his head indefinitely, though afterwards his lips were stitched shut by Brokkr as punishment for using tricky wordplay. Loki's wager, therefore, is
Loki's_wager
Informal fallacy that the truth is always a compromise
fallacy to the argument to moderation False balance – Reporting on a fringe assertion as if it were legitimate debate Overton window – Range of ideas tolerated
Argument_to_moderation
Cognitive bias of experimental subject
experimenter bias is that of "Clever Hans", an Orlov Trotter horse claimed by his owner von Osten to be able to do arithmetic and other tasks. As a result
Observer-expectancy_effect
Logical fallacy
is never distributed, so this syllogism is invalid. B would be distributed by introducing a premise which states either All B is Z, or No B is Z. Also,
Fallacy of the undistributed middle
Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle
Rhetorical device or literal parade with grotesque costumes
rhetorical device where one argues against taking a certain course of action by listing a number of extremely undesirable events that would result from it
Parade_of_horribles
Distortion or fabrication of feminist arguments
Straw feminism is a form of straw man argument used by antifeminists in which a distorted or fabricated version of feminism is used in an attempt to mock
Straw_feminism
Logical fallacy
terrorem) is a fallacy in which a person attempts to create support for an idea by attempting to increase fear towards an alternative. An appeal to fear is related
Appeal_to_fear
Self-perceived superiority within isolated communities
social exposure to the outside world. Island mentality can be characterized by narrow-mindedness, ignorance, or outright hostility towards any artifact (concept
Island_mentality
Category of mathematical proof
symbol (0 say)" (Undecidable p. 134). Turing makes an odd assertion at the end of this proof that sounds remarkably like Rice's Theorem: "...each of these
Proof_of_impossibility
Type of informal fallacy
discovery, development or acknowledgement is opposed or restricted, through assertions of potential misuse or harmfulness. In the late 1970s, Bernard Davis,
Moralistic_fallacy
mathematicians). Another proof, which is a simplification of Lambert's proof, is due to Miklós Laczkovich. Many of these are proofs by contradiction. In 1882
Proof_that_pi_is_irrational
Bias towards recently acquired information
content of their recall if its implications are not called into question by the difficulty they have in recalling it. In the late 1960s and early 1970s
Availability_heuristic
Branch of mathematical logic
formal mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques. Proofs are typically presented as inductively defined data structures
Proof_theory
Credit for a work given to the wrong person
more famous, but the real author to be forgotten (see also: obliteration by incorporation and Churchillian Drift). Such misattributions may originate
False_attribution
Type of informal fallacy
which one is being answered. Many double-barreled questions can be detected by the existence of the grammatical conjunction "and" in them. This is not a
Double-barreled_question
Threat of force to make a conclusion accepted
from authority Formal fallacy In terrorem Legal threat Might makes right Proof by intimidation Henrik Dethlefsen, "Denmark and the German Occupation: Cooperation
Argumentum_ad_baculum
View of past as inferior to the present
The term was coined by C. S. Lewis and Owen Barfield, and first mentioned by Lewis in his 1955 autobiographical work, Surprised by Joy.[citation needed]
Chronological_snobbery
Logic error due to ignoring the base rate
questionable whether the use of such models by law enforcement would meet the requisite burden of proof given that over 99% of results would be false
Base_rate_fallacy
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