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Informal fallacy
Proof by assertion, sometimes informally referred to as proof by repeated assertion, is an informal fallacy in which a proposition is repeatedly restated
Proof_by_assertion
essentially dissimilar concepts as though they were essentially similar. Proof by assertion – a proposition is repeatedly restated regardless of contradiction;
List_of_fallacies
Assertion without proof
said it himself") is an assertion without proof, or a dogmatic expression of opinion. The fallacy of defending a proposition by baldly asserting that it
Ipse_dixit
Discussion that has continued to the point of nausea
Carthago delenda est Filibuster Godwin's law List of Latin phrases Proof by assertion Pressure ulcer Rumination (psychology) Rut (roads) Sealioning Sisyphus
Ad_nauseam
Type of informal fallacy
the nature of refutation". To refute an assertion, Aristotle says we must prove its contradictory; the proof, consequently, of a proposition which stood
Irrelevant_conclusion
Topics referred to by the same term
interfaces for computer software Logical assertion, a statement that asserts that a certain premise is true Proof by assertion, an informal fallacy in which a
Assertion
Logical fallacy
made by stating or reiterating that the argument is absurd, without providing further argumentation. This theory is closely tied to proof by assertion due
Appeal_to_the_stone
Erroneous method of proof
In logic and mathematics, proof by example (sometimes known as inappropriate generalization) is a logical fallacy whereby the validity of a statement is
Proof_by_example
Form of incorrect argument and informal fallacy
is a fallacy of relevance: it fails to address the proposition in question by misrepresenting the opposing position. For example: Quoting an opponent's
Straw_man
Informal logical fallacy
publicly retreating from the initial, falsified a posteriori assertion offering a modified assertion that definitionally excludes a targeted unwanted counterexample
No_true_Scotsman
Formal fallacy
an attempt to win favor by exploiting the audience's preexisting spite or disdain for something else, it is called guilt by association or an appeal
Association_fallacy
Fallacy of claiming the majority is always correct
theorem Scientific consensus Social proof Wisdom of the crowd These ideas are paraphrased from this presentation by authors Andrew Potter and Joseph Heath
Argumentum_ad_populum
Fallacious approach to mislead an audience
used in argumentation inadvertently. The expression was popularized in 1807 by the English polemicist William Cobbett, who told a story of having used a
Red_herring
Fallacy of treating an abstraction as if it were a real thing
regarded as a fallacy. A potential consequence of reification is exemplified by Goodhart's law, where changes in the measurement of a phenomenon are mistaken
Reification_(fallacy)
Statistical fallacy
property by a factor other than its actual cause, the person is likely committing a Texas sharpshooter fallacy. The fallacy is characterized by the failure
Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy
Logical fallacy in which the conclusion provides the premise
defect in an argument whereby the premises are just as much in need of proof or evidence as the conclusion. As a consequence, the argument becomes a
Circular_reasoning
Logical fallacy
is fallible. While all sources agree this is not a valid form of logical proof and therefore obtaining knowledge in this way is fallible, there is disagreement
Argument_from_authority
Internet adage about Nazi comparisons
with statistically meaningful frequency in Reddit discussions. Promulgated by American attorney and author Mike Godwin in 1990, Godwin's law originally
Godwin's_law
Type of trolling or harassment
considered harassment by opponents of the forum and that the term sealioning was used to silence legitimate requests for proof. In 2021, Maclean's compared
Sealioning
Internet rage incitement technique
related terms rage-seeding and rage-farming specifically describe the process by which content creators intentionally sow outrage to harvest (farm) online
Rage-baiting
Logical fallacy of inconsistency
oil." The "false equivalence" is the comparison between things differing by many orders of magnitude: Deepwater Horizon spilled 210 million US gal (790 million L)
False_equivalence
Informal fallacy
coined by philosopher John Locke in the late 17th century. In debates, appealing to ignorance is sometimes an attempt to shift the burden of proof. There
Argument_from_ignorance
Question containing an unjustified assumption
beaten their wife at some time in the past. Thus, these facts are presupposed by the question, and in this case an entrapment, because it narrows the respondent
Loaded_question
Type of informal fallacy
tower on a mound (the Motte) is surrounded by an area of land (the Bailey) which in turn is encompassed by some sort of a barrier such as a ditch. Being
Motte-and-bailey_fallacy
Fallacy where validity is determined by origin
fallacy Bulverism – Type of logical fallacy Etymological fallacy – An assertion that the historical meaning of the word is its only true meaning "Not
Genetic_fallacy
Fallacy regarding hypocrisy
a rhetorical technique that intends to discredit the opponent's argument by attacking the opponent's own personal behaviour and actions as being inconsistent
Tu_quoque
Attacking the person rather than their argument
rather than the substance of the argument itself. This avoids genuine debate by creating a diversion often using a totally irrelevant, but often highly charged
Ad_hominem
Exclusive reliance on quantitative observations in decision-making
every week on Vietnam, and FitzGerald, an old Asia hand, was made uneasy by McNamara's insistence on quantifying everything, of seeing it in terms of
McNamara_fallacy
Evidence relying on personal testimony
rather than rigorous or scientific analysis" "information passed along by word-of-mouth but not documented scientifically" "evidence that comes from
Anecdotal_evidence
Branch of logic
are proved by applying deduction rules to these axioms. See § Syntactic proof via axioms. Natural deduction is a syntactic method of proof that emphasizes
Propositional_logic
Rhetorical device or literal parade with grotesque costumes
rhetorical device where one argues against taking a certain course of action by listing a number of extremely undesirable events that would result from it
Parade_of_horribles
Logical fallacy
else's argument on the basis that the same idea was promoted or practised by Adolf Hitler or the Nazi Party. Arguments can be termed reductio ad Hitlerum
Reductio_ad_Hitlerum
Faulty deductive reasoning due to a logical flaw
Statement contradicted by facts and reality Mathematical fallacy, also known as Invalid proof – Certain type of mistaken proof Modus tollens – Rule of
Formal_fallacy
Rhetorical tactic and potential fallacy
Machine "Of the Colours, or Common Opinions concerning Pleasure." Chap. XVI Archived 4 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine "Of Proofs Inartificial."
Appeal_to_nature
Fallacy of assumption of causation based on sequence of events
X, event Y must have been caused by event X". It is a fallacy in which an event is presumed to have been caused by a closely preceding event merely on
Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc
Type of fallacious argument (logical fallacy)
ISBN 978-1260091991. Lay, Steven (2014). Introduction to Analysis with Proof, 5th edition. Pearson. ISBN 978-0321747471. Hurley, Patrick J. (2012). A
Affirming_the_consequent
Formal fallacy
{\displaystyle q} Where ⊢ {\displaystyle {}\vdash {}} denotes a logical assertion. The fallacy lies in concluding that one disjunct must be false because
Affirming_a_disjunct
Formal fallacy, aka Linda Problem
problems that reliably elicit the conjunction fallacy. The original report by Tversky & Kahneman (later republished as a book chapter) described four problems
Conjunction_fallacy
Proof assistant
expression of mathematical assertions, mechanical checking of proofs of these assertions, assists in finding formal proofs using proof automation routines and
Rocq
Management attitude for innovation or development
research, standards, or knowledge from external origins. It is usually adopted by social, corporate, or institutional cultures. Since 2014, management research
Not_invented_here
Misleading use of a term with multiple meanings
In logic, equivocation ("calling two different things by the same name") is an informal fallacy resulting from the failure to define one's terms, or knowingly
Equivocation
Psychological defense mechanism
apparent logical reasons are given to justify behavior that is motivated by unconscious instinctual impulses. It is an attempt to find reasons for behaviors
Rationalization_(psychology)
Philosophical expression
criticised by scholar Gregory S. Kavka writing in the Journal of Business Ethics. Kavka refers back to philosophical concepts of retribution by Thomas Hobbes
Two_wrongs_don't_make_a_right
Rhetorical argument
and a slippery slope argument. A slippery slope event can be represented by a series of conditional statements, namely: If p then q; if q then r; if r
Slippery_slope
Logic founded on unproven premises
is, therefore, committed when a proposition which requires proof is assumed without proof." Davies (1915), 572. Welton (1905), 280–282. In Molière's Le
Begging_the_question
Apparent, but false, correlation between causally-independent variables
correlation of ratios.) Another example of a spurious relationship can be seen by examining a city's ice cream sales. The sales might be highest when the rate
Spurious_relationship
Metaphor originating from goal sports
when video published by Aftenposten showed Viking FK's goalkeeper Patrik Gunnarsson reducing his goal size by moving the goalposts by 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in)
Moving_the_goalposts
Informal fallacy in comparing actualities with ideals
particular problem. A closely related concept is the "perfect solution fallacy". By creating a false dichotomy that presents one option which is obviously advantageous—while
Nirvana_fallacy
Overused, unoriginal phrase or opinion
has taken on a more technical meaning, referring to an expression imposed by conventionalized linguistic usage. The term, which is typically pejorative
Cliché
Conclusion made on the basis of one or few instances of a phenomenon
basis of one or a few instances of that phenomenon. It is similar to a proof by example in mathematics. It is an example of jumping to conclusions. For
Faulty_generalization
Question that has a built-in supposition
fallacy, or many questions fallacy, is context dependent; a presupposition by itself does not have to be a fallacy. It is committed when someone asks a
Complex_question
Logical fallacy
example offered by Alan Turing in the article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence": If each man had a definite set of rules of conduct by which he regulated
Denying_the_antecedent
Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
form can be shown to be a logical truth by either (a) showing that it is a tautology or (b) by means of a proof procedure. The corresponding conditional
Argument
the range 1 ≤ a ≤ p − 1. Indeed, if the previous assertion holds for such a, multiplying both sides by a yields the original form of the theorem, a p ≡
Proofs of Fermat's little theorem
Proofs_of_Fermat's_little_theorem
Form of incorrect argument in natural language
because no argument is made, e.g. because no reasons are cited or no assertion is made. The core idea of arguments is that the premises support the conclusion
Informal_fallacy
Purposefully unclear communication
Obfuscation is the obscuring of the intended meaning of communication by making the message difficult to understand, usually with confusing and ambiguous
Obfuscation
Informal logical fallacy
Pascal wrote that "People [...] arrive at their beliefs not on the basis of proof, but on the basis of what they find attractive." Baruch Spinoza characterized
Appeal_to_emotion
Advertising term
advertising, a bald assertion in advertising (or non-establishment claim) is a subcategory of a false advertising claim. A bald assertion is a statement used
Bald_assertion
Formal fallacy in statistical interpretation
likelihood. From a statistical point of view, these ideas can be unified by specifying proper statistical models to make formal inferences, using aggregate
Ecological_fallacy
Type of logical fallacy
making it appear foolish and contrary to common sense. This is typically done by mocking the argument's representative foundation in an uncharitable and oversimplified
Appeal_to_ridicule
Mathematical use of "for all" and "there exists"
just asserts that every natural number has a square. The meaning of the assertion in which the order of quantifiers is reversed is different: There exists
Quantifier_(logic)
Type of logical fallacy
the speaker made that argument (even if said argument is actually correct) by attacking the speaker or the speaker's motive. Similar to Antony Flew's "subject/motive
Bulverism
Type of informal fallacy
presented by another. Example: "Before you listen to my opponent, may I remind you that he has been in jail." Therefore, the claims made by person A will
Poisoning_the_well
Self-perceived superiority within isolated communities
social exposure to the outside world. Island mentality can be characterized by narrow-mindedness, ignorance, or outright hostility towards any artifact (concept
Island_mentality
Argument that uses faulty reasoning
Handbook of Cognitive Therapy Techniques, they include "unsubstantiated assertions that are often delivered with a conviction that makes them sound as though
Fallacy
Formation of beliefs based on what might be pleasing to imagine
was able to replicate the results found by Bruner and Goodman, the New Look approach was mostly abandoned by the 1970s because the experiments were riddled
Wishful_thinking
Bias towards recently acquired information
content of their recall if its implications are not called into question by the difficulty they have in recalling it. In the late 1960s and early 1970s
Availability_heuristic
Informal logical fallacy
cause Slippery slope Texas sharpshooter Appeals Law/Legality Stone / Proof by assertion Consequences Argumentum ad baculum Wishful thinking Emotion Children
Argument_from_incredulity
Threat of force to make a conclusion accepted
from authority Formal fallacy In terrorem Legal threat Might makes right Proof by intimidation Henrik Dethlefsen, "Denmark and the German Occupation: Cooperation
Argumentum_ad_baculum
1995 publication in mathematics
Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem is a proof by British mathematician Andrew Wiles of a special case of the modularity theorem for elliptic curves
Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem
Wiles's_proof_of_Fermat's_Last_Theorem
Form of mathematical proof
take infinitely many values. The result is a rigorous proof of the statement, not an assertion of its probability. According to David E. Joyce, there
Mathematical_induction
Argument based on lack of statements
their presence. In the field of classical studies, it often refers to the assertion that an author is ignorant of a subject, based on the lack of references
Argument_from_silence
Assumption of a single cause where multiple factors may be necessary
single, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes. Fallacy of the single cause can
Fallacy_of_the_single_cause
Type of fallacy in modal logic
simply by getting married; if he does so, b) is no longer true and thus not subject to the tautology a). In this case, c) has unwarranted necessity by assuming
Modal_fallacy
Fallacy that since an argument contains a logical fallacy, its conclusion must be false
English. The fact that Alice's argument was fallacious is not, in itself, proof that her conclusion is false. Charlie: Bob's argument that Ginger is not
Argument_from_fallacy
Logical paradox from vague predicates
too little for human eyesight to be able to distinguish between them. Then by induction on this premise, humans would not be able to distinguish between
Sorites_paradox
Informal fallacy that the truth is always a compromise
fallacy to the argument to moderation False balance – Reporting on a fringe assertion as if it were legitimate debate Overton window – Range of ideas tolerated
Argument_to_moderation
Famous sentence
Vine) Alliteration Law of identity Proof by assertion Rhetorical device Rule of three (writing) Tautophrase A rose by any other name would smell as sweet
Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose
Rose_is_a_rose_is_a_rose_is_a_rose
Cognitive bias of experimental subject
experimenter bias is that of "Clever Hans", an Orlov Trotter horse claimed by his owner von Osten to be able to do arithmetic and other tasks. As a result
Observer-expectancy_effect
Bias in the sampling of a population
For example, a "man on the street" interview which selects people who walk by a certain location is going to have an overrepresentation of healthy individuals
Sampling_bias
mathematicians). Another proof, which is a simplification of Lambert's proof, is due to Miklós Laczkovich. Many of these are proofs by contradiction. In 1882
Proof_that_pi_is_irrational
Branch of mathematical logic
formal mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques. Proofs are typically presented as inductively defined data structures
Proof_theory
Certain type of mistaken proof
simple mistake and a mathematical fallacy in a proof, in that a mistake in a proof leads to an invalid proof while in the best-known examples of mathematical
Mathematical_fallacy
Latin oratorical phrase
Carthaginian peace Death to America Death to Israel Debellatio Genocide Proof by assertion List of Latin phrases Est is the third-person singular present active
Carthago_delenda_est
been extensively demonstrated in laboratory experiments. A seminal study by Denes-Raj and Epstein (1994) found that participants were more likely to draw
Denominator_neglect
Obligation on a party to prove their case
case, the claim will be dismissed. A "burden of proof" is a party's duty to prove a disputed assertion or charge, and includes the burden of production
Burden_of_proof_(law)
Logic error due to ignoring the base rate
questionable whether the use of such models by law enforcement would meet the requisite burden of proof given that over 99% of results would be false
Base_rate_fallacy
Logical fallacy
terrorem) is a fallacy in which a person attempts to create support for an idea by attempting to increase fear towards an alternative. An appeal to fear is related
Appeal_to_fear
Refutation of a logical fallacy
have established a cause-and-effect relationship. This fallacy is also known by the Latin phrase cum hoc ergo propter hoc ("with this, therefore because of
Correlation does not imply causation
Correlation_does_not_imply_causation
Formal fallacy about knowledge of objects
then A and B are indiscernible (that is, they have all the same properties). By modus tollens, this means that if one object has a certain property, while
Masked-man_fallacy
Marking an argument as obvious or trivial
presented to the public by articulate advocates who pose as experts in their field. Proof by intimidation may also back valid assertions. Ronald A. Fisher claimed
Proof_by_intimidation
Logical fallacy
lies, misdirection, or misinterpreted information to make its point. Assertions made under specious reasoning often appear or are generally accepted to
Specious_reasoning
Logical fallacy
against a security to first ascertain the borrower's title to the property by inquiring in every single courthouse in the country.[citation needed] Affirming
Appeal_to_consequences
Fallacy in which validity is determined based on novelty
needed] (the previous product may have been created by an expert who has since been replaced by a neophyte); fallibility (while building the new product
Appeal_to_novelty
Logical reasoning method
cognitive error occurs when a person incorrectly perceives an analogy as an assertion of complete equivalence between two subjects, overlooking the nuanced
Argument_from_analogy
Property of predicates in linguistics and philosophy
fact, meaningful vague identities—any purported proof to the contrary cannot be right; and as the proof relies upon the premise that vague terms precisely
Vagueness
Purported fallacy in explaining good reductively
processes such as pleasant, desirable, or fitness. The term was introduced by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica. Moore's
Naturalistic_fallacy
Fallacy of inferring on the whole from a part
jobs. An individual worker may become more productive by specializing in making, say, hatpins, but by satisfying the wants of many other individuals for
Fallacy_of_composition
Psychological bias towards favoring members of one's in-group
allocation of resources, and in many other ways. This effect has been researched by many psychologists and linked to many theories related to group conflict and
In-group_favoritism
Distraction technique and anti-debate tactic
2022-09-14. MacLachlan, Alice (May 10, 2022). "Tone-Policing and the Assertion of Authority". Blog of the APA. Archived from the original on 2022-05-27
Tone_policing
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
Surname or Lastname
English
English : variant of Rolfe.German : from Ruffo, a short form of a personal name formed with hrÅd ‘renown’, ‘victory’.Probably an Americanized spelling of German Ruf and Ruff.
Boy/Male
Muslim/Islamic
Proof
Boy/Male
Indian
Proof
Boy/Male
Muslim
Proof
Girl/Female
Muslim
Guide, Proof
Boy/Male
Indian
Proof
Boy/Male
Arabic
Proof; Evidence
Boy/Male
Muslim/Islamic
Proof
Boy/Male
Muslim
Argument, Reasoning, Proof
Boy/Male
Afghan, Arabic, Hindu, Indian, Muslim
Proof
Boy/Male
Arabic, Muslim
Evidence; Proof
Girl/Female
Muslim/Islamic
Guide Proof
Boy/Male
Muslim
Evidence. Proof.
Girl/Female
Arabic, Muslim
Guide; Proof
Boy/Male
Arabic, French, German, Gujarati, Hindu, Indian, Malaysian, Muslim, Turkish
Proof; Evidence
Girl/Female
Muslim
Proof
Boy/Male
Indian
Argument, Reasoning, Proof
Boy/Male
Arabic, Muslim
The Proof
Boy/Male
Muslim
Proof
Girl/Female
Indian
Witness; Proof
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
Surname or Lastname
English
English : topographic name from Anglo-Norman French, Middle English castel ‘castle’, ‘fortified building or set of buildings’, especially the residence of a feudal lord (Late Latin castellum, a diminutive of castrum ‘fort’, ‘Roman walled city’). The name would also have denoted a servant who lived and worked at such a place.
Girl/Female
Hindu
Moonlight, Full Moon
Girl/Female
French American Latin English
Laurel.
Girl/Female
Celebrity, Hindu, Indian, Kannada, Marathi, Sanskrit, Tamil
Garlanded with Gold
Girl/Female
Hindu, Indian, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Sindhi, Telugu
Content; Goddess of Flower
Surname or Lastname
English
English : occupational name for a carrier, from Middle English sum(p)ter ‘(driver of a) pack animal’.
Girl/Female
Tamil
Anklet
Girl/Female
Biblical
Tents, tabernacles.
Boy/Male
Indian, Sindhi, Traditional
The Moon; Similar to Som
Girl/Female
Arabic, Australian, Muslim
Woman Loving to her Husband
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
PROOF BY-ASSERTION
n.
A trial impression, as from type, taken for correction or examination; -- called also proof sheet.
n.
Proof.
pref.
With, as means, way, process, etc.; through means of; with aid of; through; through the act or agency of; as, a city is destroyed by fire; profit is made by commerce; to take by force.
v. t.
To arm with proof armor; to arm securely; as, to proof-arm herself.
a.
Proof against penetration or permeation by water; impervious to water; as, a waterproof garment; a waterproof roof.
adv.
Passing near; going past; past; beyond; as, the procession has gone by; a bird flew by.
n.
Proof.
v. t.
To cover with a roof.
a.
Used in proving or testing; as, a proof load, or proof charge.
a.
Firm or successful in resisting; as, proof against harm; waterproof; bombproof.
adv.
Aside; as, to lay by; to put by.
a.
Proof against proofs; obstinate in the wrong.
n.
Proof.
v. t.
Armor of excellent or tried quality, and deemed impenetrable; properly, armor of proof.
a.
Highly rectified; very strongly alcoholic; as, high-proof spirits.
n.
That which resembles, or corresponds to, the covering or the ceiling of a house; as, the roof of a cavern; the roof of the mouth.
a.
Out of the common path; aside; -- used in composition, giving the meaning of something aside, secondary, or incidental, or collateral matter, a thing private or avoiding notice; as, by-line, by-place, by-play, by-street. It was formerly more freely used in composition than it is now; as, by-business, by-concernment, by-design, by-interest, etc.
n.
Proof.
n.
The cover of any building, including the roofing (see Roofing) and all the materials and construction necessary to carry and maintain the same upon the walls or other uprights. In the case of a building with vaulted ceilings protected by an outer roof, some writers call the vault the roof, and the outer protection the roof mask. It is better, however, to consider the vault as the ceiling only, in cases where it has farther covering.
n.
Proof by witness; attestation; testimony.