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Layer of hardware-level instructions or data structures
In computer architecture, microcode is a layer of low-level control data or instructions used to implement a processor's instruction set architecture
Microcode
Microcode in x86 Intel processors
Intel microcode is proprietary microcode designed by Intel to implement the x86 instruction set architecture and govern other behavior of x86 CPUs. On
Intel_microcode
Software for printed circuit board design
CircuitMaker, TraxMaker and SimCode were originally developed by the Orem-based MicroCode Engineering, Inc. since 1988. CircuitMaker 5 for Windows 3.1, 9x and NT
CircuitMaker
Line of Intel microprocessors released in 2022
accelerated aging and permanent damage at elevated voltages. The BIOS code and microcode used with these CPUs supplied improperly high voltages, resulting in instability
Raptor_Lake
Computer vulnerability using speculative execution
(L1TF). They reported that previously released microcode updates, along with new, pre-release microcode updates can be used to mitigate these flaws. On
Transient execution CPU vulnerability
Transient_execution_CPU_vulnerability
Microcode in programming language
even lower unit of processing known as microcode which interprets the machine code and it is then that the microcode instructions would be the genuine primitives
Language_primitive
Instructions a computer can execute
its complex arithmetic. Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the memory controller. Memory controller microcode instructions manipulate
Computer_program
computers are built using "writable microcode" — rather than storing the microcode in ROM or hard-wired logic, the microcode is stored in a RAM called a writable
Control_store
Processor with instructions capable of multi-step operations
sequence of simpler instructions. One reason for this was that architects (microcode writers) sometimes "over-designed" assembly language instructions, including
Complex instruction set computer
Complex_instruction_set_computer
Part of a computer system
perform some of these tasks with much greater speed. The introduction of microcode in the 1960s allowed these instructions to be included in the system's
Floating-point_unit
IBM midrange computer (1978–1988)
directly in microcode as part of the Horizontal Microcode. The Horizontal Microcode resided in control store; it corresponded to traditional microcode. Vertical
IBM_System/38
32-bit microprocessor by Intel
2020. "80386 microcode disassembled « Reenigne blog". Retrieved May 23, 2026. Team, Devdigest Editorial (May 23, 2026). "80386 Microcode Disassembled:
I386
Midrange IBM computer from 1960s
definition) "horizontal microcode" instruction format, with each word containing 15 (or 25) separate fields. There are 2816 words of microcode storage. Read-only
IBM_System/360_Model_50
Firmware for hardware initialization and OS runtime services
BIOS contains patches to the processor microcode that fix errors in the initial processor microcode; microcode is loaded into processor's SRAM so reprogramming
BIOS
Portable computer released by IBM in 1975
based on a 16-bit processor module called PALM (Program All Logic in Microcode). The IBM 5100 Maintenance Information Manual also referred to the PALM
IBM_5100
16-bit microprocessor
result of a more software-centric approach. Other enhancements included microcode instructions for the multiply and divide assembly language instructions
Intel_8086
Instruction set architecture extension
which resulted in disabling the TSX/TSX-NI feature on affected CPUs via a microcode update. In 2016, a side-channel timing attack was found by abusing the
Transactional Synchronization Extensions
Transactional_Synchronization_Extensions
Software that emulates an entire computer
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Virtual_machine
IBM computer family (1964–1977)
only partially compatible Model 44 and the most expensive systems use microcode to implement the instruction set, which used 8-bit byte addressing with
IBM_System/360
Low-level computer software
high-speed memory) into which microcode firmware would be loaded. Many software functions would be moved to microcode, and instruction sets could be
Firmware
Computer made by Xerox
Alto Hardware Manual by Xerox PARC. Alto uses a microcoded design, but unlike many computers, the microcode engine is not hidden from the programmer in a
Xerox_Alto
Software anyone is free to redistribute
distributor is also FRS.[clarification needed] In cases of firmware or microcode, it is acceptable for major open-source projects like OpenBSD to include
Freely redistributable software
Freely_redistributable_software
Experimental minicomputer by IBM
contemporary processor design, which was based on the concept of using microcode. IBM had been among the first to make widespread use of this technique
IBM_801
Software that executes source code directly
Ignition Interpreter in the Google V8 JavaScript execution engine. Microcode Microcode provides an abstraction layer as a hardware interpreter that implements
Interpreter_(computing)
Heart component of IBM 51x0 early day luggable/portable
The PALM (Program All Logic in Microcode) is a 16-bit central processing unit (CPU) developed by IBM. It was used in the IBM 5100 Portable Computer, a
IBM_PALM_processor
Instructions directly executable by a computer
architecture is implemented by an even more fundamental underlying layer called microcode, providing a common machine language interface across a line or family
Machine_code
Computer processor designed by David M. Harland
set architecture (ISA) dedicated to the language they were using. The microcode instruction set was stored in static RAM. There was no default ISA, although
Rekursiv
provided to customers as a means of writing customized microcode. In the process of microcode assembly it is helpful to verify the microprogram with emulation
Microassembler
Educational computer program released in 1992
register transfer level controlled by sequences of micro-instructions (microcode). Based on this, it is possible to develop an instruction set to control
MikroSim
16-bit microprocessor introduced by NEC
Intel CPUs and the original Intel microcode. In its ruling, on September 22, 1986, the court determined that the microcode in the control store constitutes
NEC_V20
Reverse-engineering without infringing copyright
copied the microcode of the 8086 processor in their NEC V20 clone. A US judge ruled that while the early, internal revisions of NEC's microcode were indeed
Clean-room_design
Processor executing one instruction in minimal clock cycles
by their trip through the microcode. If the microcode was removed, the programs would run faster. And since the microcode ultimately took a complex instruction
Reduced instruction set computer
Reduced_instruction_set_computer
Compiling bytecode to machine code at runtime
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Just-in-time_compilation
System allowing a device to imitate another
combination of software, microcode, and hardware". They discovered that simulation using additional instructions implemented in microcode and hardware, instead
Emulator
IBM midrange computer (1975–1984)
implemented the System/3 instruction set in microcode. The System/32 processor utilized a vertical microcode format, with each microinstruction occupying
IBM_System/32
Network coprocessor
RISC processor controlled either by a microcode in ROM or by downloadable firmware. Various forms of microcode were shipped for different applications
Communications Processor Module
Communications_Processor_Module
Mainframe computer by Univac in 1979
1100/64). The 1100/60 introduced a new feature to the line: the CPUs used microcode that was loaded during the booting process. The booting process was controlled
UNIVAC_1100/60
Software published only in binary code
applied to code running outside the kernel, such as system firmware images, microcode updates, or userland programs. The term blob was first used in database
Binary_blob
Data that causes a computer to follow indicated instructions
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Executable
Human-readable instructions for a computer
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Source_code
Maya (MEL) MDL Mercury Mesa MHEG-5 (Interactive TV programming language) Microcode Microsoft Power Fx MIIS MIMIC Mirah Miranda MIVA Script ML Model 204 Modelica
List_of_programming_languages
Processor design concept
unit Hardwired control unit Instruction unit Data buffer Write buffer Microcode ROM Counter Datapath Multiplexer Demultiplexer Adder Multiplier CPU Binary
Translation_lookaside_buffer
Mainframe computer by IBM in 1970
used by the microcode for the DOS compatibility feature from its first shipments in June 1971; the same hardware was used by the microcode for DAT. Although
IBM_System/370_Model_145
Subset of x86 instruction set architecture for floating-point arithmetic
strictly needed to construct working programs, but provide hardware and microcode implementations of common numerical tasks, allowing these tasks to be
X87
American computer scientist
computer architecture, and studied how to translate assembly into optimized microcode. After completing his Ph.D., he then joined the University of Wisconsin-Madison
David_DeWitt
Instruction set designed to be run by a software interpreter
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Bytecode
Metric for source code testing
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Code_coverage
IBM computer model from 1960s
standard IBM punched-card, so the microcode could be changed using a keypunch. Each card held 720 bits, and the total microcode consisted of 4032 60-bit words
IBM_System/360_Model_30
Firmware with restrictions on use, private modification, copying, or republishing
free (libre) or open-source. Proprietary firmware (and especially the microcode) is much more difficult to avoid than proprietary software or even proprietary
Proprietary_firmware
American multinational semiconductor company
the Am2900 bit-slice microprocessor family. When Intel began installing microcode in its microprocessors in 1976, it entered into a cross-licensing agreement
AMD
Model that describes the programmable interface of a computer processor
employ microcode routines or tables (or both) to do this, using ROMs or writable RAMs (writable control store), PLAs, or both. Some microcoded CPU designs
Instruction_set_architecture
Programmable machine that processes data
is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen. The control unit, ALU
Computer
Computer security vulnerability
a year-long embargo period. Intel promised microcode updates to resolve the vulnerability. The microcode patches have been shown to significantly reduce
Downfall (security vulnerability)
Downfall_(security_vulnerability)
Performing the actions encoded in a computer program
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Execution_(computing)
Version of the Linux kernel without proprietary code
Linux-libre does not suggest the user install CPU microcode update bundles, since the code is proprietary. Microcode update bundles have been used in the mainline
Linux-libre
Set of rules describing computer system
standards define different programmer-visible macroarchitectures. Microcode: microcode is software that translates instructions to run on a chip. It acts
Computer_architecture
American inventor (1946–2022)
Senior Design Engineer at Motorola, where he specified and designed the microcode and the controller core of the MC68000 microprocessor, one of the first
Nick_Tredennick
Successor to the Intel 386
Intel's 80486 microcode. This led to the creation of two versions of AMD's 486 processor – one reverse-engineered from Intel's microcode, while the other
I486
Video compression semiconductor company
real time (30 frame/s) images First C-Cube chip driven by programmable microcode Used primarily as a demonstration vehicle, never entered full production
C-Cube
Computer system that provides behavior needed by running code
of runtime systems, with the CPU itself—or actually its logic at the microcode layer or below—acting as the lowest-level runtime system. Some compiled
Runtime_system
Data structure or code used by a compiler
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Intermediate_representation
CPU microarchitecture by Intel
11, 2011. "June 2015 Intel CPU microcode update for Windows". Retrieved November 7, 2020. "Windows 7: June 2015 microcode update for Intel processors in
Ivy Bridge (microarchitecture)
Ivy_Bridge_(microarchitecture)
Production model by Intel
Intel Releases Linux CPU Microcodes To fix Meltdown & Spectre Bugs by Lawrence Abrams on January 11, 2018 Linux* Processor Microcode Data File Version 20180312
Tick–tock_model
path, and one CROM, Control and ROM, providing control sequencing and microcode storage. The IMP-16 is a bit-slice processor; each RALU chip provides
IMP-16
Analysis of software performed when running a program
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Dynamic_program_analysis
When a computer program fails to release unnecessary memory
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
Memory_leak
Linux software that manages firmware updates
process other types of firmware update, for example SSD firmware, CPU microcode, and Android firmware. fwupd uses a plugin architecture to support upgrading
Fwupd
19th century proposed mechanical computer
mill would rely upon its own internal procedures, roughly equivalent to microcode in modern CPUs, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating
Analytical_engine
Layer of protection in computer systems
CPU architectures that provide different CPU modes at the hardware or microcode level. Rings are arranged in a hierarchy from most privileged (most trusted
Protection_ring
Series of 16-bit minicomputers
with a ribbon cable connecting to the third microcode ROM socket. The source code for EIS/FIS microcode was included so these instructions, normally
PDP-11
Dataflow-based graph execution model.
really needed. In 1964, IBM introduced its System/360 series which used microcode to allow a single expansive instruction set architecture (ISA) to run
Explicit_data_graph_execution
Processor design by Andrew S. Tanenbaum
Computer Organization. It consists of a very simple control unit that runs microcode from a 512-words store. The Micro-Assembly Language (MAL) is engineered
MIC-1
Operating system of the IBM System/38
the platform is implemented in the System/38's Horizontal and Vertical Microcode. QGPL – general purpose library QSYS – system library QSPL – spooling
Control_Program_Facility
Computer made in France circa 1960
Fixed or floating point 80 ms Square root (in software) Floating point (with microcode) 80 ms Sine (in software) Floating point (with microcode) 200 ms
CAB_500
1973 minicomputer from Wang Laboratories
integrated computer-controlled cassette tape storage unit and keyboard. It was microcoded to run BASIC on startup, making it similar to home computers of a few
Wang_2200
2021 Intel CPU socket
MSI motherboards, 12th Gen CPUs only. 13th Gen disabled BCLK OC at CPU microcode level RAM only Yes Bus Interface DMI 4.0 ×4 DMI 4.0 ×8 CPU support Alder
LGA_1700
Virtual machine in the Open Telecom Platform
representation (IR) Types of code Source code Object code Bytecode Machine code Microcode Compilation strategies Ahead-of-time (AOT) Just-in-time (JIT) Tracing
BEAM_(Erlang_virtual_machine)
2-D grid of wires where data is represented by the presence or absence of diodes at nodes
computer. On heavily microcoded mainframes such as the IBM System/360 Model 50, the entire instruction set was carried out by microcode held in this fast
Diode_matrix
Combinational digital circuit
unit Hardwired control unit Instruction unit Data buffer Write buffer Microcode ROM Counter Datapath Multiplexer Demultiplexer Adder Multiplier CPU Binary
Arithmetic_logic_unit
Computer architecture to aid parallelism
of developing horizontal microcode. Fisher's innovations involved developing a compiler that could target horizontal microcode from programs written in
Very_long_instruction_word
Low-level instructions used in some designs to implement complex machine instructions
caching. Various forms of μops have long been the basis for traditional microcode routines used to simplify the implementation of a particular CPU design
Micro-operation
Central computer component that executes instructions
this improvement, IBM used the concept of a microprogram (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread use in modern CPUs. The System/360 architecture
Central_processing_unit
the microcode of the 16-bit workstation PERQ, and its operating system Accent. It used that workstation's microcode abilities (and provided microcodes for
Spice_Lisp
Computer company focused on DEC's PDP-11
fact that it used a large number of microcode controlled drivers onto tri-state buses, which made developing microcode somewhat hazardous. The M11 design
Mentec
32-bit minicomputers
success of the microcoded IBM System/360 series of mainframe computers, various startup companies arrived on the scene to bring microcode technology to
Interdata_7/32_and_8/32
Intel microprocessor family
to checks detecting virtual machines. This problem has been fixed in a microcode update. The P and E cores now return the same CPUID when both are enabled
Alder_Lake
Computer series from British company ICL
corrupt pronunciation resulted in the name "Estriel") processors and microcodes, and a nodal architecture, which is a form of Non-Uniform Memory Access
ICL_Series_39
Computing mainframe environment
Machine Environment, abbreviated DME, was a mainframe environment for microcode based versions of the ICL 2900 Series (2960 and the second-generation
ICL Direct Machine Environment
ICL_Direct_Machine_Environment
Function in a programming language, which evaluates a string
in a modified Polish-string notation" on an IBM System/360 Model 50. Microcoding this function was "substantially more" than five times faster compared
Eval
Intel processor microarchitecture
November 11, 2011. "June 2015 Intel CPU microcode update for Windows". Retrieved 2020-11-07. "Windows 7: June 2015 microcode update for Intel processors in Windows"
Sandy_Bridge
Computer manufacturing company in the US
system called EMBOS. The Elxsi CPU was a microcoded design, allowing custom instructions to be coded into microcode. Elxsi was founded in 1979 by Joe Rizzi
Elxsi
Line of computers sold by Digital Equipment Corporation
VAX-11/780 included a subordinate stand-alone LSI-11 computer that performed microcode load, booting, and diagnostic functions for the parent computer. This
VAX
Register ALU chip CP1621 CON - Control chip CP1631 MICROM - Mask-programmed microcode ROM chip (512 – 22 bit words) The chips use a 3.3MHz four phase clock
MCP-1600
Sixth-generation x86 microprocessor by Intel
Pro was the first processor in the x86 family to support upgradeable microcode under BIOS and/or operating system (OS) control. Micro-ops exit the re-order
Pentium_Pro
Computer instruction for returning hardware-generated random numbers
a performance comparison between a PRNG and CSPRNG cannot be made. A microcode update released by Intel in June 2020, designed to mitigate the CrossTalk
RDRAND
Intel CPU vulnerability discovered in late 2023
It has been assigned the CVE ID CVE-2023-23583. Intel has released new microcode in an out-of-band patch to mitigate the vulnerability, which it calls
Reptar_(vulnerability)
Mapping arbitrary data to fixed-size values
computationally feasible. Therefore, it is more suited to hardware or microcode implementation. Unique permutation hashing has a guaranteed best worst-case
Hash_function
American computer programmer and author (born 1946)
implementation which includes the complete source code listing for the microcode for a Digital Scientific Corporation Meta 4 microprogrammable processor
Rodnay_Zaks
English computer security analyst
class processors. In September 2024, he was involved in discovering a microcode vulnerability affecting certain AMD Zen based processors. (CVE-2024-56161)
Tavis_Ormandy
2013 processor microarchitecture
CPUs, which resulted in disabling the TSX feature on affected CPUs via a microcode update. Fully integrated voltage regulator (FIVR), thereby moving some
Haswell_(microarchitecture)
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