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Rules by which information encoded within genetic material is translated into proteins
Genetic code is a set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences of nucleotide triplets
Genetic_code
Modified genetic code
An expanded genetic code is an artificially modified genetic code in which one or more specific codons have been re-allocated to encode an amino acid
Expanded_genetic_code
Science of genes, heredity and variation
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms'
Genetics
Standard and alternative genetic codes
different genetic codes. When translating from genome to protein, the use of the correct genetic code is essential. The mitochondrial codes are the relatively
List_of_genetic_codes
Sequence of DNA that determines traits in an organism
the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly
Gene
Science of synthetic life forms
nucleic acid (XNA) as information carriers. It also focuses on an expanded genetic code and the incorporation of non-proteinogenic amino acids, or "xeno amino
Xenobiology
Codon that marks the end of a protein-coding sequence
termination. In the standard genetic code, there are three different termination codons: There are variations on the standard genetic code, and alternative stop
Stop_codon
Organic compounds containing amine and carboxylic groups
α-amino acids incorporated into proteins. Only these 22 appear in the genetic code of life. Amino acids can be classified according to the locations of
Amino_acid
List of standard rules to translate DNA encoded information into proteins
codon table can be used to translate a genetic code into a sequence of amino acids. The standard genetic code is traditionally represented as an RNA codon
DNA_and_RNA_codon_tables
Biological molecules constituting nucleic acids
the first known example of a living organism passing along an expanded genetic code to subsequent generations. The applications of synthetic nucleotides
Nucleotide
System of rules to convert information into another form or representation
which messenger RNA is derived. This in turn produces proteins through a genetic code in which a series of triplets (codons) of four possible nucleotides can
Code
Characteristic of a group of organisms with a common ancestor
common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian. The genetic code (the "translation table" according to which DNA information is translated
Common_descent
Genetic algorithm Genetic architecture Genetic carrier Genetic code Genetic counseling Genetic deletion Genetic determinism Genetic disorder Genetic diversity
Index_of_genetics_articles
1961 scientific experiment instrumental in deciphering the genetic code
The experiment deciphered the first of the 64 triplet codons in the genetic code by using nucleic acid homopolymers to translate specific amino acids
Nirenberg and Matthaei experiment
Nirenberg_and_Matthaei_experiment
Redundancy of codons in the genetic code
the genetic code, exhibited as the multiplicity of three-base pair codon combinations that specify an amino acid. The degeneracy of the genetic code is
Codon_degeneracy
Biodatabase of genetic codes
Genetic codes is a simple ASN.1 database hosted by the National Center for Biotechnology Information and listing many known Genetic codes. Full contents
Genetic_codes_(database)
Chemical compound
incorporated during translation (protein synthesis) as directed by the genetic code, just like the standard amino acids. It is encoded in mRNA by the UAG
Pyrrolysine
Organelle in eukaryotic cells responsible for respiration
codon, consistent with the standard genetic code for tryptophan. Of note, the arthropod mitochondrial genetic code has undergone parallel evolution within
Mitochondria
Class of hemichordates
pterobranch taxa Rhabdopleura compacta and Cephalodiscus use alternative genetic codes in their mitochondrial genome. Maletz, J. (2024). "The evolutionary
Pterobranchia
Alternative genetic code
The vertebrate mitochondrial code (translation table 2) is the genetic code found in the mitochondria of all vertebrata. AGA and AGG are not found to map
Vertebrate_mitochondrial_code
Nuclear genetic code in some flagellates
Blastocrithidia nuclear code (translation table 31) is a genetic code used by the nuclear genome of the trypanosomatid genus Blastocrithidia. This code, along with
Blastocrithidia_nuclear_code
Possible earliest ancestor of the LUCA ancestral cell
have been a non-cellular entity that was the earliest organism with a genetic code capable of performing biological translation of RNA molecules to protein
First universal common ancestor
First_universal_common_ancestor
Form of evolutionary mutation
exon of a gene coding for a protein, such that the produced amino acid sequence is not modified. This is possible because the genetic code is "degenerate"
Synonymous_substitution
Association of scientists deciphering the genetic code
interested in how proteins were synthesised from genes, specifically the genetic code. It was created by George Gamow upon a suggestion by James Watson in
RNA_Tie_Club
Software for statistical analysis of molecular evolution
modifying the genetic code used for translating DNA sequences. By default, MEGA has 23 built-in genetic code variations including the standard code, vertebrate
Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis
Molecular_Evolutionary_Genetics_Analysis
DNA mutation with no observable effect on an organism's phenotype
protein function. The genetic code translates mRNA nucleotide sequences to amino acid sequences. Genetic information is coded using this process with
Silent_mutation
Memory present at birth that exists in the absence of sensory experience
experiences of a species can become incorporated into that species' genetic code, not by a Lamarckian process that encodes specific memories, but by a
Genetic_memory_(psychology)
Unique genetic code demonstrated by Shulgina and Eddy in 2021
The Absconditabacterales genetic code (tentative code number 37) translates UGA to glycine, and CGG and GCA to tryptophan, as determined by the codon assignment
Absconditabacterales genetic code
Absconditabacterales_genetic_code
Unusual regions in protein sequences
early genetic code (with the exception of the hydrophobic ones) are significantly enriched in bacterial LCRs. Most of the later additions to the genetic code
Low complexity regions in proteins
Low_complexity_regions_in_proteins
Cellular process of protein synthesis
generated. The matching from nucleotide triple to amino acid is called the genetic code. The translation is performed by a large complex of functional RNA and
Translation_(biology)
Genus of ascomycete fungi
non-standard genetic code in the translation of their nuclear genes into the amino acid sequences of polypeptides. The difference in the genetic code between
Candida_(fungus)
Sulfur-containing amino acid
was present in early versions of the genetic code, but methionine intruded into the final version of the genetic code due to its role in the cofactor S-adenosylmethionine
Methionine
American biosynthetic chemist
(p-aminophenylalanine) from basic carbon sources and includes this amino acid in its genetic code. This is the first example of the creation of an autonomous twenty-one-amino-acid
Peter_G._Schultz
English physicist and biologist (1916–2004)
the genetic code. In his 1958 article, Crick speculated, as had others, that a triplet of nucleotides could code for an amino acid. Such a code might
Francis_Crick
American microbiologist (1928–2012)
Gabriella and a son and daughter. Woese turned his attention to the genetic code while setting up his lab at General Electric's Knolls Laboratory in the
Carl_Woese
Evolutionary origin and subsequent development of cells
the modern ribozyme catalyst RNase P, and RNAs. The nearly universal genetic code preserves some evidence for the RNA world. For instance, recent studies
Evolution_of_cells
Specific grouping of nucleotides into threes
sequence (DNA or RNA) is not altered—only the frame in which it is read. Genetic code Directionality (molecular biology) Sense (molecular biology) Rainey S
Reading_frame
Molecule that carries genetic information
case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins
DNA
RNA that facilitates the addition of amino acids to a new protein
(in eukaryotes). In a cell, it provides the physical link between the genetic code in messenger RNA (mRNA) and the amino acid sequence of proteins, carrying
Transfer_RNA
American theoretical physicist (1904–1968)
the Greek alphabet.) Before his interest turned to the question of the genetic code, Gamow published about twenty papers on cosmology. The earliest was in
George_Gamow
DNA structure discovery
Brenner, Leslie Barnett and Richard Watts-Tobin, demonstrated that the genetic code is read in non-overlapping triplets. It was a key experiment in the development
Frameshift mutation experiment
Frameshift_mutation_experiment
Amino acid that is incorporated biosynthetically into proteins during translation
Throughout known life, there are 22 genetically encoded (proteinogenic) amino acids, 20 in the standard genetic code and an additional 2 (selenocysteine
Proteinogenic_amino_acid
Ancestor of all current life on Earth
currently living organisms as well as genetic analysis. LUCA certainly had genes and a genetic code. Its genetic material was most likely DNA, so that
Last universal common ancestor
Last_universal_common_ancestor
Genetic code found in ferns
The Enterosoma genetic code (tentative code number 34) translates AGG to methionine, as determined by the codon assignment software Codetta; it was further
Enterosoma_genetic_code
Amino acids not naturally encoded in the genome
non-proteinogenic amino acids occur naturally in proteins (but not included in the genetic code) and thousands more may occur in nature or be synthesized in the laboratory
Non-proteinogenic_amino_acids
DNA experiment
examine the nature of genetic coding and, in turn, understand the process of protein synthesis. George Gamow proposed that the genetic code was composed of
Hershey–Chase_experiment
Class of protists that produce a filamentous network
notable for the alternative genetic code of its mitochondria which use TTA as a stop codon instead of coding for Leucine. This code is represented by NCBI
Labyrinthulomycetes
German biochemist (1929–2025)
his unique contribution to solving and providing a way to decode the genetic code on 15 May 1961. Whilst a post-doctoral visitor in the laboratory of Marshall
J._Heinrich_Matthaei
RNA base pair that does not follow Watson–Crick base pair rules
structure and are critical for the proper translation of the genetic code. In the genetic code, there are 43 = 64 possible codons (three-nucleotide sequences)
Wobble_base_pair
First codon of a messenger RNA translated by a ribosome
Hatfield, D. L.; Gladyshev, V. N. (2010). "Dual functions of codons in the genetic code". Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 45 (4): 257–65
Start_codon
1953 scientific paper on DNA
the field of genetics, enabling later researchers to understand the genetic code. The application of physics and chemistry to biological problems led
Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
Molecular_Structure_of_Nucleic_Acids:_A_Structure_for_Deoxyribose_Nucleic_Acid
Succession of nucleotides in a nucleic acid
a codon, corresponds to a single amino acid, and there is a specific genetic code by which each possible combination of three bases corresponds to a specific
Nucleic_acid_sequence
Explanation of the flow of genetic information within a biological system
The central dogma of molecular biology deals with the flow of genetic information within a biological system. It is often stated as "DNA makes RNA, and
Central dogma of molecular biology
Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology
Nitrogen-containing biological compounds that form nucleosides
primary or canonical. They function as the fundamental units of the genetic code, with the bases A, C, G and T being found in DNA while A, C, G and U
Nucleotide_base
Biomolecule consisting of chains of amino acid residues
encoded in the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids; but in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine
Protein
Scientific study of genes at the molecular level
discoveries were necessary. The discovery of DNA as a means to transfer the genetic code of life from one cell to another and between generations was essential
Molecular_genetics
Study of the human mitochondrial genome
sustaining life. The mitochondrial diseases are genetic disorders carried in mitochondrial DNA, or nuclear DNA coding for mitochondrial components. Slight problems
Human_mitochondrial_genetics
American biochemist and geneticist (1927–2010)
1968 with Har Gobind Khorana and Robert W. Holley for "breaking the genetic code" and describing how it operates in protein synthesis. In the same year
Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg
Genetic code in mitochondria of various organisms and in mycoplasma/spiroplasma
protozoan, and coelenterate mitochondrial code and the mycoplasma/spiroplasma code (translation table 4) is the genetic code used by various organisms, in some
Mold, protozoan, and coelenterate mitochondrial code and the mycoplasma/spiroplasma code
Mold,_protozoan,_and_coelenterate_mitochondrial_code_and_the_mycoplasma/spiroplasma_code
Biochemical material
Crick FH, Barnett L, Brenner S, Watts-Tobin RJ. General nature of the genetic code for proteins. Nature. 1961 Dec 30;192:1227-32. doi: 10.1038/1921227a0
Gene_product
Egyptian skeleton
NUE001 is the genetic code name of an Old Kingdom adult male Egyptian of relatively high-status who was excavated in a cliff in Nuwayrat, Minya (Nuerat
Old Kingdom Individual (NUE001)
Old_Kingdom_Individual_(NUE001)
Non-technical introduction to genetics
in a particular order within it, carrying genetic information. The language used by DNA is called genetic code, which lets organisms read the information
Introduction_to_genetics
elucidated the triplet nature of the genetic code and allowed the remaining ambiguous codons in the genetic code to be deciphered. In this experiment
Nirenberg and Leder experiment
Nirenberg_and_Leder_experiment
Indian-American molecular biologist (1922–2011)
that showed the order of nucleotides in nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code of the cell and control the cell's synthesis of proteins. Khorana and
Har_Gobind_Khorana
Species of fungus
Dermatol. 127 (9): 2138–46. doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5700844. PMID 17460728. "Genetic code of dandruff cracked". BBC News. 6 November 2007. Archived from the original
Malassezia_globosa
Alternative genetic code
The alternative flatworm mitochondrial code (translation table 14) is a genetic code found in the mitochondria of Platyhelminthes and Nematodes. AAs
Alternative flatworm mitochondrial code
Alternative_flatworm_mitochondrial_code
Common ancestor of eukaryotes
universal common ancestor (LUCA), a much smaller cell which had the genetic code but no nucleus, and which gave rise to the first two domains of life
Last eukaryotic common ancestor
Last_eukaryotic_common_ancestor
Collection of knowledge in case of civilisational collapse
might agree to store their genetic code in a digital or analog storage format which would enable later retrieval of that code. If a species was sequenced
Knowledge_ark
Class of enzymes
aminoacyl-tRNA. In humans, for each of the 20 standard amino acids of the genetic code, there are typically separate aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that make the
Aminoacyl_tRNA_synthetase
Natural number
Ambrogelly A, Palioura S, Söll D (January 2007). "Natural expansion of the genetic code". Nature Chemical Biology. 3 (1): 29–35. doi:10.1038/nchembio847. PMID 17173027
22_(number)
Genetic code found in bacteria
The Anaerococcus and Onthovivens genetic code (tentative code number 36) translates CGG to tryptophan, as determined by the codon assignment software Codetta;
Anaerococcus and Onthovivens genetic code
Anaerococcus_and_Onthovivens_genetic_code
Introduction of foreign genetic material into a host
express foreign genes because the genetic code is similar for all organisms. This means that a specific DNA sequence will code for the same protein in all organisms
Transgenesis
Alternative genetic code in some invertebrates
The invertebrate mitochondrial code (translation table 5) is a genetic code used by the mitochondrial genome of invertebrates. Mitochondria contain their
Invertebrate mitochondrial code
Invertebrate_mitochondrial_code
Family of large biological molecules
inosine (I). Inosine plays a key role in the wobble hypothesis of the genetic code. There are more than 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides
RNA
Alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a genome
modified. Synonymous mutations occur due to the degenerate nature of the genetic code. If this mutation does not result in any phenotypic effects, then it
Mutation
Life arising from non-living matter
Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, deriving energy by chemiosmosis, and used DNA, the genetic code, and ribosomes. Earlier cells might have had a leaky membrane and been
Abiogenesis
Amino acid
defined by early genetic codes. For example, low complexity regions (in proteins), that may resemble the proto-peptides of the early genetic code are highly
Glycine
Possible alternative biochemicals used by life forms
lacking a sensitive means of detecting low levels of metabolism. The genetic code may have evolved during the transition from the RNA world to a protein
Hypothetical types of biochemistry
Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
Marvel Comics supervillain
mutant nation Krakoa, before secretly betraying it by inserting his own genetic code into its population during "Sins of Sinister" (2023). While his primary
Mister_Sinister
Species of fungus
departure from the standard genetic code, and most such departures are in start codons or, for eukaryotes, mitochondrial genetic codes. This alteration may,
Candida_albicans
Nuclear genetic code in some ciliates
karyorelictid nuclear code (translation table 27) is a genetic code used by the nuclear genome of the Karyorelictea ciliate Parduczia sp. This code, along with
Karyorelict_nuclear_code
Nuclear genetic code in some yeasts
The alternative yeast nuclear code (translation table 12) is a genetic code found in certain yeasts. However, other yeast, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Alternative yeast nuclear code
Alternative_yeast_nuclear_code
Aminosulfonic acid
acid; however, being non-proteinogenic, it is not a component of the genetic code and is distinguished from the protein-building α-amino acids. Taurine
Taurine
Comic book superhero
An accident causes half of his DNA to be rewritten with a spider's genetic code, granting him powers identical to those of the original Spider-Man, with
Spider-Man_2099
South African biologist and Nobel prize winner (1927–2019)
John E. Sulston. Brenner made significant contributions to work on the genetic code, and other areas of molecular biology while working in the Medical Research
Sydney_Brenner
Species of archaeon
the experiment also provided valuable insight into the origin of the genetic code and its organizational influences. It was found that most of the amino
Pyrococcus_furiosus
Alternative genetic code
The echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code (translation table 9) is a genetic code used by the mitochondria of certain echinoderm and flatworm species
Echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code
Echinoderm_and_flatworm_mitochondrial_code
American geneticist (1934–2020)
for his early work with Marshall Nirenberg in the elucidation of the genetic code and the Nirenberg and Leder experiment. Since then, he has made several
Philip_Leder
Mitochondrial genetic code in trematodes
The trematode mitochondrial code (translation table 21) is a genetic code found in the mitochondria of Trematoda. AAs = FFLLSSSSYY**CCWWLLLLPPPPHH
Trematode_mitochondrial_code
Mitochondrial genetic code in some green algae
The chlorophycean mitochondrial code (translation table 16) is a genetic code found in the mitochondria of Chlorophyceae. AAs =
Chlorophycean mitochondrial code
Chlorophycean_mitochondrial_code
Alternative genetic code in some heterotrich ciliates
The Blepharisma nuclear code (translation table 15) is a genetic code found in the nuclei of Blepharisma. AAs = FFLLSSSSYY*QCC*WLLLLPPPPHHQQRRRRII
Blepharisma_nuclear_code
Italian theoretical biologist
BioSystems. His research field is code biology, the study of all codes of life from the genetic code to the codes of culture. His major books are The
Marcello_Barbieri
Chemical compound
bioorthogonal click-chemistry reagent that can be genetically incorporated into proteins via expanded genetic code techniques for site-specific labeling and functionalization
Azidophenylalanine
relationship between these two forms of biological molecules and discovered the genetic code. The regulation of gene expression became a central issue in the 1960s;
History_of_genetics
Interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering
DNA code was presented in 2014; the team used E. coli that had its genome extracted and replaced with a chromosome with an expanded genetic code. The
Synthetic_biology
Two nucleobases bound by hydrogen bonds
becoming translated into the amino acid sequence of proteins via the genetic code. The size of an individual gene or an organism's entire genome is often
Base_pair
2020 video game
security forces. Along the way, the creature discovers pieces of its genetic code removed by the scientists for study and containment, which allow it to
Carrion_(video_game)
triplet nature of the genetic code. 1961 – Marshall W. Nirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei deciphered the first codon of the genetic code. 1964 – Marshall W
Timeline of scientific experiments
Timeline_of_scientific_experiments
Alternative genetic code in some yeasts
The pachysolen tannophilus nuclear code (translation table 26) is a genetic code found in the ascomycete fungus Pachysolen tannophilus. AAs =
Pachysolen tannophilus nuclear code
Pachysolen_tannophilus_nuclear_code
Pokémon species
"Evolution Pokémon" in the games and the anime, Eevee has an unstable genetic code, which allows it to evolve into one of eight different Pokémon, known
Eevee
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