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information limited because of the large-scale variability due to the emissivity of sea ice. Satellite microwave data (and visible, infrared data depending
Sea_ice_emissivity_modelling
Outcome of seawater as it freezes
ocean Sea ice emissivity modelling Sea ice thickness – Measurement of the spatial extent of sea ice Zhubov scale – Scale for reporting polar sea ice coverage
Sea_ice
Earth's southern polar ice cap
multiple centuries. Paleoclimate research and improved modelling show that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is very likely to disappear even if the warming
Antarctic_ice_sheet
Area of sea ice relative to the total area at a given point in the ocean
physical temperature when all other things are equal—see emissivity—and because the sea ice emissivity at different microwave channels is strongly correlated
Sea_ice_concentration
Computer model that simulates sea ice
microbial communities Sea ice emissivity modeling Sea ice growth processes Sea ice concentration Sea ice thickness Sea ice physics and ecosystem experiment
CICE_(sea_ice_model)
Records made for navigational safety and environmental monitoring
microwaves differently from sea ice, ice "looks" different from water to the satellite sensor—see sea ice emissivity modelling. The observations are processed
Measurement_of_sea_ice
effects—see, for instance, Ekman spiral. Sea ice Sea ice thickness Sea ice concentration Sea ice emissivity modelling G. Maykut; T. Grenfell & W. Weeks (1992)
Sea_ice_growth_processes
Human-caused changes to climate on Earth
Arctic has contributed to thawing permafrost, retreat of glaciers and sea ice decline. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts
Climate_change
Positive feedback climate process
continuous satellite readings of the Arctic sea ice began), in a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification. Modelling studies show that strong Arctic amplification
Ice–albedo_feedback
Sea ice loss in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean
Sea ice in the Arctic region has declined in recent decades in area and volume due to climate change. It has been melting more in summer than it refreezes
Arctic_sea_ice_decline
Sea-ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity
Arctic ice pack is the sea ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity. The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in
Arctic_ice_pack
Rise in sea levels due to climate change
it supports rapid sea level rise in the present. Modelling which investigated the hypothesis after 2016 often suggested that the ice shelves in the real
Sea_level_rise
dry regions might become drier while, at the poles, the ice caps are melting, causing higher sea levels. In 2016, the global average temperature was already
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
Quantitative methods used to simulate climate
Earth emissivity. The effective emissivity also gauges the strength of the atmospheric greenhouse effect, since it is the ratio of the thermal emissions escaping
Climate_model
Segment of Antarctic ice sheet
ice is grounded well below sea level, on rock and sediment that would be the ocean floor if the ice were to retreat. The ice sheet first formed about 27
West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet
Pedagogical illustration of how the greenhouse effect causes global warming
consider CO2 content as changing the emissivity ε. We thus re-interpret ε in the above equation as an effective emissivity that includes the CO2 effect;, and
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change
Period of long-term reduction in temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere
discussed ice as a means of transport. The Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas (1712–1772) was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice was a
Ice_age
21130/08/NL/EL. Peter Mills; Georg Heygster (2010). "Sea ice emissivity modelling at L-band and application to Pol-Ice campaign field data" (PDF). IEEE Transactions
Collocation_(remote_sensing)
Release of methane in the Arctic
sources of methane are thawing permafrost, Arctic sea ice melting, clathrate breakdown and Greenland ice sheet melting. This methane release results in a
Arctic_methane_emissions
Impacts of climate change on the Arctic
continuous satellite readings of the Arctic sea ice began), in a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification. Modelling studies show that strong Arctic amplification
Climate_change_in_the_Arctic
Hierarchical outline list of articles related to oceanography
seabed Sea ice concentration – The area of sea ice relative to the total area at a given point in the ocean Sea ice emissivity modelling – Sea ice growth
Outline_of_oceanography
Vast body of ice in Greenland, Northern Hemisphere
Greenland ice alone would still add around 6 cm (2+1⁄2 in) to global sea level rise by the end of the century. If there are no reductions in emissions, melting
Greenland_ice_sheet
Climate engineering approach
Sea ice refreezing refers to various climate engineering techniques aimed at directly facilitating the formation or restoration of ice in polar regions
Sea_ice_refreezing
Sea ice specialist and climate scientist
Assessment Report (2013–2014). His specialties include polar oceanography, sea ice, climate change, and satellite remote sensing. Josefino "Joey" Comiso was
Josefino_Comiso
Frozen water; the solid state of water
The loss of grounded ice (as opposed to floating sea ice) is the primary contributor to sea level rise. Humans have been using ice for various purposes
Ice
Concept in optics
21130/08/NL/EL. Mills, Peter; Heygster, Georg (2011). "Sea ice emissivity modelling at L-band and application to Pol-Ice campaign field data" (PDF). IEEE Transactions
Polarization_mixing
Sea level variations over geological time scales
drowned by the sea, leaving no trace of any former dry land connection. Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate
Past_sea_level
Arm of the Southern Ocean
February 1929. The sea is mostly ice-covered, and the Thwaites Ice Tongue protrudes into it. The ice sheet which drains into the Amundsen Sea averages about
Amundsen_Sea
Feedback related to climate change
be purely a function of temperature. Although Earth has an effective emissivity less than unity, the ideal black body radiation emerges as a separable
Climate_change_feedbacks
Arm of the Indian Ocean between Asia and Africa
species hazardous to humans The Red Sea Project Kämpf, Jochen (2010). "5.5.2: Mediterranean Seas". Advanced Ocean Modelling: Using Open-Source Software. Heidelberg:
Red_Sea
Geographical reference point from which various heights are measured
"Global sea levels have been underestimated due to poor modelling, research suggests". The Guardian. Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Relative rise in sea level"
Sea_level
Type of climate model
and OGCM) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components. GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting, understanding
General_circulation_model
Emissions, impacts and response of Norway related to climate change
average sea ice between 1900 and 2100. Year-round reductions in Arctic sea ice extent are projected by the end of the 21st century from multi-model averages
Climate_change_in_Norway
Eurasian sea northeast of the Mediterranean
layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey. Modelling shows that, in the event of an asteroid impact on the Black Sea, the release of hydrogen sulfide clouds
Black_Sea
Oceanic division
covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter. The Arctic Ocean's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover
Arctic_Ocean
Species of bear native to the Arctic
dependence on marine ecosystems. They prefer the annual sea ice but live on land when the ice melts in the summer. They are mostly carnivorous and specialized
Polar_bear
rise in sea levels due to the expansion of water as it warms and the melting of ice sheets on land. Other effects on oceans include sea ice decline,
Effects of climate change on oceans
Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans
Large mass of glacial ice
Greenland ice alone would still add around 6 cm (2+1⁄2 in) to global sea level rise by the end of the century. If there are no reductions in emissions, melting
Ice_sheet
2025 United Kingdom climate engineering research initiative
Retrieved 2026-03-31. "Modelling the impact of solar radiation modification". 2025-04-03. Retrieved 2026-03-31. "Re-Thickening Arctic Sea Ice (RASi)". SRM360
Exploring Climate Cooling Programme
Exploring_Climate_Cooling_Programme
Sea between Africa, Asia, and Europe
The Mediterranean Sea (/ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən/ MED-ih-tə-RAY-nee-ən) is an intercontinental sea situated between Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is surrounded
Mediterranean_Sea
Critical thresholds in climate science
transfer enough heat to the ocean to prevent sea ice recovery even if the global warming is reversed. Modelling now shows that this heat transfer during the
Tipping points in the climate system
Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system
Slow response of complex feedback systems
shallower ocean. Even after CO2 emissions are lowered, the melting of ice sheets will persist and further increase sea-level rise for centuries. The slower
Climate_inertia
American physicist (born 1941)
showed that the model's main problems are having too weak of an ENSO-like variability, and poor sea ice modeling, resulting in too little ice in the Southern
James_Hansen
Climate pattern
Arctic Ocean resulting in more ice melting. The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September
Arctic_dipole_anomaly
Earth's surface where water is frozen
where water is in solid form. This includes sea ice, ice on lakes or rivers, snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground (which includes permafrost)
Cryosphere
abrupt under a high emission scenario, as a consequence of a partial collapse. Part of the ice sheet is grounded on bedrock below sea level. This makes
Effects_of_climate_change
Greenhouse gases emitted from human activities
and ice. Indirect heating can be caused by the interaction with clouds. Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks. Emissions may
Greenhouse_gas_emissions
is a list of locations and entities by greenhouse gas emissions, i.e. the greenhouse gas emissions from companies, activities, and countries on Earth which
List of locations and entities by greenhouse gas emissions
List_of_locations_and_entities_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions
Atmospheric constituent and greenhouse gas
rise in sea levels due to the expansion of water as it warms and the melting of ice sheets on land. Other effects on oceans include sea ice decline,
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth
Carbon_dioxide_in_the_atmosphere_of_Earth
intrusion. High-emission RCP8.5 scenario would see the loss of at least one third of Japanese beaches and 57–72% of Thai beaches. Sea level rise in Bangladesh
Climate_change_in_Asia
Type of soil in frozen state
Laurentide Ice Sheet are located. Buried surface ice may derive from snow, frozen lake or sea ice, aufeis (stranded river ice) and even buried glacial ice from
Permafrost
published in Science Advances applied a sea ice-ocean model identifying three distinct phases of Antarctic sea ice retreat, and suggested that "persistent
2026_in_climate_change
Oscillation - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Arctic methane release - Arctic sea ice decline - Arctic shrinkage - Argo (oceanography) - ARkStorm - Athabasca
Index of climate change articles
Index_of_climate_change_articles
Study of the relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in the arctic
inhabitants felt signaled an early onset of the Little Ice Age of the 1300s. This caused the sea ice to expand, which made traveling through Greenland and
Arctic_ecology
respirable suspended particulate matter. In case of cooling towers with sea water makeup, sodium salts are deposited on nearby lands which would convert
Health and environmental impact of the coal industry
Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry
Maritime shipping route near the North Pole
Transpolar Sea Route remains a mostly unused route as ships going through it must traverse a permanent sea ice sheet, requiring advanced ice breaking capabilities
Arctic_shipping_routes
Atmospheric heat retention
Understanding Global Warming - Lesson 5 - Modelling of the Climate System - One-Layer Energy Balance Model". Pennsylvania State University College of
Greenhouse_effect
Large body of salt water
modelling makes use of ocean circulation models as well as models of other major components such as the atmosphere, land surfaces, aerosols and sea ice
Sea
Market-based approach used to control pollution
Emissions trading is a market-oriented approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for reducing the emissions of pollutants. The
Emissions_trading
covered by ice (sea ice, glacial ice, or snow) year-round, and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface
Climate_of_the_Arctic
Body of salt water covering most of Earth
surface temperatures can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F). Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium is about −2 °C (28 °F). In all parts
Ocean
Greenhouse gas inventory sector
(AFOLU), is defined as a "greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land
Land use, land-use change, and forestry
Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry
Methane-water lattice compound
with water within the sea bed subject to temperature and pressure. In 2008, research on Antarctic Vostok Station and EPICA Dome C ice cores revealed that
Methane_clathrate
Climate effect
State-of-the-art modelling research of PAMIP (Polar Amplification Model Intercomparison Project) improved upon the 2010 findings of PMIP2; it found that sea ice decline
Polar_amplification
Collaboration for climate change study
Group on Coupled Modelling (WGCM) of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). It is developed in phases to foster the climate model improvements but
Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project
Prehistoric landslide off Norway
multiscale modelling and inclusion of realistic palaeobathymetry affect numerical simulation of the Storegga Slide tsunami?". Ocean Modelling. 83: 11–25
Storegga_Slide
Southern half of the global ocean current system
the freshening of the water caused by precipitation and the melting of sea ice during summer (on the Southern Hemisphere). This buoyancy gain transforms
Southern Ocean overturning circulation
Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation
American climate scientist
spatial patterns of sea level changes over time. Sea Ice Seasonal Asymmetry: Identifying and modeling the asymmetric nature of polar sea ice seasons. His research
Ian_Eisenman
Impacts of climate change on Antarctica
isolation, Antarctica has experienced warming and ice loss in recent decades, driven by greenhouse gas emissions. West Antarctica warmed by over 0.1 °C per decade
Climate_change_in_Antarctica
instead of snow. The Baltic Sea could see a surface water temperature increase of up to 4 °C (7 °F). This will decrease sea ice cover by the end of the century
Climate_change_in_Sweden
Recent shrinking of glaciers due to global warming
warming and resulting ice sheet runoff. Hence, without better modelling, new observations suggest that past projections of sea level rise attribution
Retreat of glaciers since 1850
Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850
Climate change mitigation policy
Wang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Yan, W.; Zhang, J. (2012). "Modelling Forest Fragmentation and Carbon Emissions for REDD plus". Procedia Engineering. 37: 333–338
REDD+
Sources of methane gas in Earth's atmosphere
sources of methane are thawing permafrost, Arctic sea ice melting, clathrate breakdown and Greenland ice sheet melting. This methane release results in a
Methane_emissions
System of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean
considered incorrect. While one modeling study suggested collapse of the AMOC could result in Ice Age-like cooling, including sea-ice expansion and mass glacier
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation
Canadian cryosphere researcher
researcher, cryosphere and sea level expert whose research primarily centers around the interactions between ice sheets, sea level, and earth in the past
Natalya_Gomez
NASA mission
effect, and their implications for Arctic amplification, sea ice loss, and global climate models. PREFIRE addresses key gaps in climate science by quantifying
PREFIRE
rise in sea levels due to the expansion of water as it warms and the melting of ice sheets on land. Other effects on oceans include sea ice decline,
Climate_change_and_fisheries
Proposed climate interventions to slow glacier and ice sheet loss
glaciers, ice sheets, and sea ice in polar regions and, in some cases, alpine areas. Proposals are motivated by concerns that feedback loops—such as ice-albedo
Glacial_geoengineering
Change in the statistical distribution of climate elements for an extended period
combination is also possible, e.g., sudden loss of albedo in the Arctic Ocean as sea ice melts, followed by more gradual thermal expansion of the water. Climate
Climate variability and change
Climate_variability_and_change
mostly covered in a layer of transparent or translucent nitrogen ice; furthermore, modelling fails to replicate the observed distribution of bright and dark
Climate_of_Triton
Segment of the continental ice sheet that covers East Antarctica
4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels, depending on the ice sheet model used. The EAIS as a whole holds enough ice to raise global sea levels by 53.3 m (175 ft)
East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet
Decrease of pH levels in the ocean
ocean currents and upwelling zones, proximity to large continental rivers, sea ice coverage, and atmospheric exchange with nitrogen and sulfur from fossil
Ocean_acidification
Atmospheric phenomenon
last 35 years and by using the NOAA HYSPLIT trajectory model, researchers showed that gas emissions from the volcano (including hydrogen chloride (HCl))
Ozone_depletion
Cylindrical sample drilled from an ice sheet
Impurities in ice cores may depend on location. Coastal areas are more likely to include material of marine origin, such as sea salt ions. Greenland ice cores
Ice_core
Subsurface oceans or seas are suspected to exist on some of Saturn's other moons, the asteroid Ceres, the larger trans-Neptunian objects, and ice planets in planetary
List of largest lakes and seas in the Solar System
List_of_largest_lakes_and_seas_in_the_Solar_System
Climate goal limiting greenhouse effect
of 1.5 °C to 2 °C, the Greenland ice sheet or Arctic sea ice could melt. The tipping point for the West Antarctic ice sheet may already have been surpassed
1.5-degree_target
focusing on the environment Marika Holland, scientist working on sea ice modelling Alice Clary Earle Hyde (1876–1943), botanical artist and conservationist
List of women climate scientists and activists
List_of_women_climate_scientists_and_activists
Antarctic glacier
the Amundsen Sea, at surface speeds which exceed 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) per year near its grounding line. Its fastest-flowing grounded ice is centered between
Thwaites_Glacier
Ratio of how much light is reflected back from a body
work Photometria. Bio-geoengineering Cool roof Daisyworld Emissivity Exitance Global dimming Ice–albedo feedback Irradiance Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
Albedo
Multi-sport event in Bangkok and Chonburi, Thailand
2025 SEA Games (Thai: ซีเกมส์ 2025, RTGS: Kila Sikem 2025, pronounced [kīː.lāː sīː.kēːm sɔ̌ːŋ.pʰān.jîː.sìp̚.hâː]), officially called the 33rd SEA Games
2025_SEA_Games
French Antarctic researcher
a French Antarctic researcher, best known for her work on ice sheets and their impact on sea level rise. Catherine Ritz received her master's degree Maîtrise
Catherine_Ritz
Earth's southernmost continent
melting of the ice. Models suggest that ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex effect may also account for the period of increasing sea ice extent, lasting
Antarctica
Hypothetical representation of potential future conditions
Felix; Aurbacher, Joachim; Zander, Peter (2022). "Ecological–Economic Modelling of Traditional Agroforestry to Promote Farmland Biodiversity with Cost-Effective
Climate_change_scenario
on snow or ice can contribute to global warming. Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea-level rise
Causes_of_climate_change
Study of the physical processes in atmospheric clouds
such as Cloud Amount, height, IR emissivity, visible optical depth, icing, effective particle size for both liquid and ice, and cloud top temperature and
Cloud_physics
Species of krill
65 times the size of the North Sea. In the winter season, more than three-quarters of this area become covered by ice, whereas 24,000,000 square kilometres
Antarctic_krill
2007 IPCC report
air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level". Most of the global average warming over the past 50
IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report
Barents Sea – A perspective from Norway CICERO: A green certificate market may result in less green electricity Lofty Pledge to Cut Emissions Comes With
Energy_in_Norway
Current of the Atlantic Ocean
formation of sea ice). Unlike the AMOC, the observations of Labrador Sea outflow showed no negative trend from 1997 to 2009, and the Labrador Sea convection
North_Atlantic_Current
2009 climate change report
Arctic sea-ice decline Melting of Arctic sea-ice has also accelerated, exceeding the projections of climate models. Underestimation of rising sea levels
Copenhagen_Diagnosis
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