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Class of modern grammatical theories
Dependency grammar (DG) is a class of modern grammatical theories that are all based on the dependency relation (as opposed to the constituency relation
Dependency_grammar
Type of grammar based on constituent entities
structure grammars are all those grammars that are based on the constituency relation, as opposed to the dependency relation associated with dependency grammars;
Phrase_structure_grammar
Group of one or more words
of the constituency-based, phrase structure grammar, and the tree on the right is of the dependency grammar. The node labels in the two trees mark the
Phrase
Grammatical concept
non-finite verb if such a verb is present. Subject (grammar) Predicate (grammar) Dependency grammar Object pronoun Prepositional pronoun Transitive verb
Object_(grammar)
Part of a sentence
subject. According to a tradition associated with predicate logic and dependency grammars, the subject is the most prominent overt argument of the predicate
Subject_(grammar)
Sentence constituent
infinitive, participle or gerund. Phrase structure grammars acknowledge both types, but dependency grammars treat the subject as just another verbal dependent
Verb_phrase
System responsible for combining morphemes into complex structures
Operator grammar Word grammar Lucien Tesnière (1893–1954) is widely seen as the father of modern dependency-based theories of syntax and grammar. He argued
Syntax
Tree in formal language theory
constituency relation of constituency grammars (phrase structure grammars) or the dependency relation of dependency grammars. Parse trees may be generated for
Parse_tree
Subject and predicate in sentences
phrase structure approaches.[citation needed] On the other hand, dependency grammar rejects the binary subject-predicate division and places the finite
Predicate_(grammar)
Automatic analysis of syntactic structure of natural language
especially syntactic relations (in dependency grammar) and labelling spans of constituents (in constituency grammar). It is motivated by the problem of
Syntactic parsing (computational linguistics)
Syntactic_parsing_(computational_linguistics)
Smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition
grammar (e.g. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Construction Grammar, dependency grammar) reject the presence of null elements such as PRO, which means
Clause
Structural rules of a language
the syntactic rules of grammar and their function have been developed in theoretical linguistics. Dependency grammar: dependency relation (Lucien Tesnière
Grammar
Rewrite rule used to describe a given language's syntax
and a grammar that employs phrase structure rules is therefore a constituency grammar; as such, it stands in contrast to dependency grammars, which are
Phrase_structure_rules
International linguistics project
produces syntactic analyses of sentences in terms of dependencies based on dependency grammar. Each dependency is characterized in terms of a syntactic function
Universal_Dependencies
French linguist (1893–1954)
approach to the syntax of natural languages that would become known as dependency grammar. He presented his theory in his book Éléments de syntaxe structurale
Lucien_Tesnière
Proposed parameter in linguistics
Japanese, whereas verb-rich languages tend to be head-initial languages. Dependency grammar Dependent-marking language Double-marking language Government (linguistics)
Head-directionality_parameter
Regulatory relationship between a word and its dependents
of syntax, and a much broader notion in dependency grammars. In traditional Latin and Greek (and other) grammars, government is the control by verbs and
Government_(linguistics)
introducing new complexity and variation. Operator grammar posits three universal constraints: dependency (certain words depend on the presence of other words
Operator_grammar
Syntax mechanism
in contrast, less layered structures are assumed as for example in dependency grammar, then many instances of topicalization do not involve a discontinuity
Topicalization
Unit of syntax and morphology
"chain") is a unit of syntax and morphology, closely associated with dependency grammars. It is a more flexible and inclusive unit than the constituent and
Catena_(linguistics)
Distinction between phrases that have a primary word ("head") and that don't
in Sanskrit grammar. Such a distinction is possible only in phrase structure grammars (constituency grammars), since in dependency grammars all constructions
Endocentric_and_exocentric
Primary part of a grammatical phrase
the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars or the dependency relation of dependency grammars. Both relations are illustrated with the following
Head_(linguistics)
model of syntax, whose most distinctive characteristic is its use of dependency grammar, an approach to syntax in which the sentence's structure is almost
Word_Grammar
Word order common in Germanic languages
been developed, including within the model of dependency grammar and generative grammar. Dependency grammar (DG) can accommodate the V2 phenomenon simply
V2_word_order
Clause relationships in linguistics
theories of grammar is greatest in dependency grammars, which tend to posit dozens of distinct grammatical relations. Every head-dependent dependency bears
Grammatical_relation
Rule system for formal languages
phrase structure grammar to refer to context-free grammars, whereby phrase-structure grammars are distinct from dependency grammars. In computer science
Context-free_grammar
Theory of syntax
hierarchy. Link grammar is similar to dependency grammar, but dependency grammar includes a head-dependent relationship, whereas link grammar makes the head-dependent
Link_grammar
Theory in linguistics
In contrast, dependency grammars focus on the relationships between individual words, treating words as nodes that are linked by dependency relations rather
Immediate constituent analysis
Immediate_constituent_analysis
Phrase which grammatically functions the same as a noun
theories that apply this understanding of phrases. Other grammars such as dependency grammars are likely to reject this approach to phrases, since they
Noun_phrase
Type of dependency grammar
Lexicase is a type of dependency grammar originally developed beginning in the early 1970s by Stanley Starosta at the University of Hawaii. Dozens of Starosta's
Lexicase
Word or a group of words
constituent structure is associated mainly with phrase structure grammars, although dependency grammars also allow sentence structure to be broken down into constituent
Constituent_(linguistics)
Natural language processing methodology
formalisms by adding small, non-terminal based phrase structure grammars or dependency grammars, and a number of Treebank projects have used CG for automatic
Constraint_grammar
Linguistic terminology
exist in all languages. Dependency grammars sometimes call arguments actants, following Lucien Tesnière (1959). The area of grammar that explores the nature
Argument_(linguistics)
Abstract grammatical formalism
structures (as opposed to dependency-based ones) and is therefore a type of phrase structure grammar (as opposed to a dependency grammar). CCG relies on combinatory
Combinatory categorial grammar
Combinatory_categorial_grammar
Word classes, largely corresponding to traditional parts of speech
structure grammars, the phrasal categories (e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, adpositional phrase, etc.) are also syntactic categories. Dependency grammars, however
Syntactic_category
Word, word part or word chain
and T. Groß 2012. "Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar". Cognitive Linguistics 23(1), 163–214. Media related to Lexical
Lexical_item
Topics referred to by the same term
preceding particle Dependency grammar is based on the dependency relation between the lexemes of a sentence Dependent clause Dependency relation, a type
Dependency
Class of languages characterized by a flat phrase structure
exist in phrase structure grammars only. In a dependency-based grammar, the distinction is meaningless because dependency-based structures do not acknowledge
Non-configurational_language
Grammar framework in theoretical linguistics
representation of grammatical functions such as subject and object, similar to dependency grammar. The development of the theory was initiated by Joan Bresnan and Ronald
Lexical_functional_grammar
Phrase with a non-literal meaning
the bucket cannot occur as kick the pot. From the perspective of dependency grammar, idioms are represented as a catena which cannot be interrupted by
Idiom
Grammar where inflection "agrees" with primary components of phrases
three tree structures shown are those of a dependency grammar, as opposed to those of a phrase structure grammar: Heads and dependents are identified by
Head-marking_language
Grammatical paradox
syntax (e.g. lexical functional grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, construction grammar, most dependency grammars) that reject movement, i.e.
Movement_paradox
Branch of applied mathematics
discourse grammar. Computational methods have been developed by the framework functional generative description among others. Dependency grammar, created
Mathematical_linguistics
Analysing a string of symbols, according to the rules of a formal grammar
Another popular strategy for avoiding linguistic controversy is dependency grammar parsing. Most modern parsers are at least partly statistical; that
Parsing
Framework for describing natural languages' syntax
structure grammar, as opposed to a dependency grammar, and it is the immediate successor to generalized phrase structure grammar. HPSG draws from other fields
Head-driven phrase structure grammar
Head-driven_phrase_structure_grammar
Verb form that can complete an independent clause by itself
In the dependency trees, the projection of the finite verb (V) is the root of the entire structure. Nonfinite verb Conjugation Dependency grammar Phrase
Finite_verb
Basic operation in the Minimalist Program
Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar, Lexical Functional Grammar, most dependency grammars, etc.), and it is contrary
Merge_(linguistics)
English grammatical process
layered structures of phrase structure grammars as well as for the flatter structures of dependency grammars. Negative inversion is illustrated with
Negative_inversion
Linguistic Framework
1960s by a team led by Petr Sgall. Based on the dependency grammar formalism, it is a stratificational grammar formalism that treats the sentence as a system
Functional generative description
Functional_generative_description
Classification of natural languages
he/him, she/her, they/them, who/whom. The following representations of dependency grammar illustrate some cases: Plural nouns in English require the plural
Dependent-marking_language
structures of dependency grammar, although the concept is just as applicable to the structures of phrase structure grammars (= constituency grammars). The discussion
Discontinuity_(linguistics)
of a phrase structure grammar and a dependency-based analysis of a dependency grammar are shown: The phrase structure grammar trees are the a-trees on
Exceptional_case-marking
Grammar formalism
The center strings and adjunct strings can also be generated by a dependency grammar, avoiding the limitations of rewrite systems entirely. A TAG can be
Tree-adjoining_grammar
Phrase that can be removed, preserving grammatical correctness
hand. Some dependency grammars, for instance, employ the term circonstant (instead of adjunct), following Tesnière (1959). The area of grammar that explores
Adjunct_(grammar)
Usage of function words instead of affixes
and T. Groß 2012a. "Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar". Cognitive Linguistics 23, 1, 163–214. Osborne, T., M. Putnam
Periphrasis
Czech linguist (1926–2019)
(27 May 1926 – 28 May 2019) was a Czech linguist. He specialized in dependency grammar, topic–focus articulation and Common Czech. Sgall was born on 27 May
Petr_Sgall
Case of an n-gram, where n is 2
avoiding connecting words, or allowing some simulation of dependencies, as in a dependency grammar). Bigrams, along with other n-grams, are used in most successful
Bigram
Analysis of sentence structure
associated with a phrase structure grammar and once according to a dependency-based analysis associated with a dependency grammar. The first group of trees illustrate
Branching_(linguistics)
English grammatical process
grammar that rejects the presence of the finite VP constituent, and the second two trees illustrate the analysis in a dependency grammar. Dependency grammar
Subject–verb inversion in English
Subject–verb_inversion_in_English
Number and type of arguments controlled by a linguistic predicate
Argument Arity Case grammar Dependency grammar Grammatical conjugation Lucien Tesnière Morphosyntactic alignment Phrase structure grammar Subcategorization
Valency_(linguistics)
Syntactic process affecting where constituents appear
shifting constellation in a phrase structure grammar (= constituency grammar) first and in a dependency grammar second: The two constituency-based trees show
Shifting_(syntax)
Grammatical construction
consciousness. Constituent (linguistics) Dependency grammar Finite verb Head (linguistics) Phrase structure grammar Verb phrase Confusingly, there is a difference
Inversion_(linguistics)
Concept in linguistics
Both constituency-based trees of phrase structure grammar and dependency-based trees of dependency grammar are employed here: The constituency-based trees
Raising_(syntax)
structure grammars and dependency-based structures of dependency grammars: The constituency-based trees are the a-trees on the left, and the dependency-based
Control_(linguistics)
Syntactic discontinuity
phrase-structure analysis and a dependency-grammar analysis. The phrase-structure trees appear first above the dependency trees: The a-trees, which lack
Extraposition
Branch of linguistics that studies language through examples contained in real texts
segmentation, part-of-speech tagging, and syntactic analysis using dependency grammar. The Digital Corpus of Sanskrit (DCS) is a "Sandhi-split corpus of
Corpus_linguistics
Ability of lexical items to specify syntactic arguments
with phrase structure grammars in the Chomskyan tradition, whereas valency originates with Lucien Tesnière of the dependency grammar tradition. The primary
Subcategorization
State of being limited or ended
government and binding framework. The b-trees on the right are the dependency grammar trees. Whether expressed through rich inflectional morphology or more
Finiteness
Term in linguistic syntax
linguistics, cross-serial dependencies (also called crossing dependencies by some authors) occur when the lines representing the dependency relations between
Cross-serial_dependencies
Linguistic research program proposed by Noam Chomsky
that shifts from constituency-based to dependency-based structures. Minimalism falls under the dependency grammar umbrella by virtue of adopting bare phrase
Minimalist_program
Grammatical component
semantically empty predicate licensers or a kind of auxiliary. In dependency grammar approaches they can be analyzed using the concept of the catena. Most
Light_verb
Form of linguistic discontinuity
role in the theories of long-distance dependencies. The term wh-movement stemmed from early generative grammar in the 1960s and 1970s and was a reference
Wh-movement
Syntax-semantics interface
proposed within HPSG, context-free grammar, categorial grammar, tree-adjoining grammar, Minimalism, and Dependency Grammar. Glue is a theory of the syntax–semantics
Glue_semantics
Linguistic theory
phrase structure grammar, lexical functional grammar, construction grammar, and most dependency grammars), in contrast, reject the notion of movement
Syntactic_movement
Type of grammatical construction
this division being at the core of all phrase structure grammars (as opposed to dependency grammars, which do not acknowledge the binary division). Inverse
Inverse_copular_constructions
however, constituents in dependency grammars, since they dominate other (elided) material. The constituency vs. dependency distinction is therefore one
Stripping_(linguistics)
Grammar of the English language
(1976). An Intensive Course in English, Orient Blackswan, p. 5. Dependency grammars reject the concept of finite verb phrases as clause constituents
English_grammar
informal account that suggests a linear view of grammar (as opposed to phrase-structure or dependency grammars). Each word has a set of patterns assigned to
Pattern_grammar
Complex syntactic structure linking two or more elements
brackets would qualify as a constituent in both phrase structure grammars and dependency grammars. Theoretical accounts of coordination vary in major respects
Coordination_(linguistics)
Theoretical linguistic framework
the unordered network of the semantic representation (SemR) through the dependency tree-structures of the syntactic representation (SyntR) to a linearized
Meaning–text_theory
Reference grammar of Modern English, first published 1909–1949
aspects of dependency in Otto Jespersen's structural syntax". In Imrényi, András; Mazziotta, Nicolas (eds.). Chapters of Dependency Grammar: A Historical
A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles
A_Modern_English_Grammar_on_Historical_Principles
Earliest model of generative grammar
structure of natural languages with context-free grammars. His general position on the context-dependency of natural language has held up, though his specific
Transformational_grammar
Omitted words still understood in context
Thomas Groß 2012. Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar. Cognitive Linguistics 23, 1: 163–214. Sag, Ivan 1976. Deletion
Ellipsis_(linguistics)
part on whether the analysis is based in a phrase structure grammar or a dependency grammar. Pseudogapping was first identified, named, and explored by
Pseudogapping
Topics referred to by the same term
a type of specialised administrative body in the European Union Dependency Grammar, a class of modern grammatical theories in linguistics. This disambiguation
DG
(linguistics) Constituent (linguistics) Pseudogapping Phrase structure grammar Dependency grammar Culicover (1997:283ff.) provides an overview and critique of the
Antecedent-contained_deletion
the main focus of the sentence. This view stands in contrast to dependency grammars, which base their assumed structure on the relationship between a
Generalized phrase structure grammar
Generalized_phrase_structure_grammar
Generative linguistics framework
school in the generative tradition of phrase structure grammars (as opposed to dependency grammars). However, Chomsky considers the term[clarification needed]
Principles_and_parameters
Verbs that can't complete a clause (such as "going" or "to live")
perfect, pluperfect and future perfect tenses. For an overview of dependency grammar structure in modern linguistic analysis, three example sentences are
Nonfinite_verb
Annotated linguistic resource
of Quranic Arabic. A novel visualization of traditional Arabic grammar through dependency graphs. Morphological search for the Quran. A machine-readable
Quranic_Arabic_Corpus
Concept in linguistics
Phrase Structure Grammar, and most dependency grammars such as Meaning-Text Theory, Functional Generative Description, and Lexicase Grammar also assume the
Determiner_phrase
Phrase modifying a lexical item
constituency relation of phrase structure grammars and then in terms of the dependency relation of dependency grammars. The following labels are used on the
Adpositional_phrase
Text corpus with tree annotations
state of the art around that time. Text corpus Phrase structure grammar Dependency grammar Parsing Part-of-speech tagging Alexander Clark, Chris Fox and
Treebank
American linguist known for recursive categorical syntax
structure and linguistic relationships. It is a type of dependency grammar, and is related to link grammars. It views words and phrases as mathematical entities
Michael_Brame
Verb adding grammatical meaning rather than content meaning
and T. Groß 2012. Constructions are catenae: Construction Grammar meets Dependency Grammar. Cognitive Linguistics 23, 1, 165–216. Radford, A. 1997. Syntactic
Auxiliary_verb
Pictorial representation of the grammatical structure of a sentence
the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars and the dependency relation of dependency grammars. These two relations are illustrated here adjacent
Reed–Kellogg_sentence_diagram
View of linguistics
post-structuralists. Structural linguist Lucien Tesnière, who invented dependency grammar, considered the relationship between meaning and form as conflicting
Structural_linguistics
Type of role taken by a character
Lucien Tesnière considered the function of a verb as most important in dependency grammar and invented the term "actant", various persons that accompany a verb:
Actant
Phrase in linguistics
versions of generative grammar and lexical functional grammar. Many other approaches, such as functional grammar and dependency grammar, refer to thematic
Theta_role
American linguist (1939–2002)
published a book, The case for Lexicase, in which he presents a type of dependency grammar that he had developed since the early 1970s. Starosta also proposed
Stanley_Starosta
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