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Psychological concept
Adaptive behavior refers to the collection and independent performance of the skills that enable an individual to meet the social and practical demands
Adaptive_behavior
Academic journal
Adaptive Behavior is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers the field of adaptive behavior in living organisms and autonomous artificial
Adaptive_Behavior_(journal)
Developmental assessment scale for children and adolescents
The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale is a psychometric instrument used in child and adolescent psychiatry and clinical psychology. It is used especially
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale
Vineland_Adaptive_Behavior_Scale
Behavior which increases reproductive success
In behavioral ecology, adaptive behavior is any behavior that contributes directly or indirectly to an individual's reproductive success, and is thus
Adaptive_behavior_(ecology)
Psychological treatment approach using conditioning principles to change behavior
behavior. It has since come to refer mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior through
Behavior_modification
System whose behavior is not automatically predictable from its parts
A complex adaptive system (CAS) is a system that is complex in that it is a dynamic network of interactions, but the behavior of the ensemble may not
Complex_adaptive_system
Economic theory
the adaptive market hypothesis. Adaptive expectations Adaptive Investment Approach Agent-based computational economics Behavioral economics Behavioral Strategy
Adaptive_market_hypothesis
Generalized neurodevelopmental disorder
person's adaptive functioning, the diagnosis is not made rigidly. It encompasses intellectual scores, adaptive functioning scores from an adaptive behavior rating
Intellectual_disability
Intelligence and awareness in elephants
world's most intelligent animals. Elephants manifest a wide variety of behaviors, including those associated with grief, learning, mimicry, playing, altruism
Elephant_cognition
Ability to perceive, infer, retain or apply information
infer information and to retain it as knowledge to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context. The term rose to prominence during
Intelligence
System that can adapt to the environment
feature of adaptive systems, such as ecosystems and individual organisms; or in the human world, communities, organizations, and families. Adaptive systems
Adaptive_system
Tendency to visit certain flower species
arguably, constancy is not so obviously adaptive for pollinators. Individuals that show constant behavior ignore other flowers that could potentially
Flower_constancy
Branch of psychology
functional products of natural and sexual selection or non-adaptive by-products of other adaptive traits. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms
Evolutionary_psychology
German psychologist (born 1947)
decision making. Gigerenzer is director emeritus of the Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition (ABC) at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development
Gerd_Gigerenzer
Type of therapy to improve mental health
challenging and adjusting convictions and assumptions, and learn better adapted behavior by trying and training new behaviours. While CBT has philosophical
Cognitive_behavioral_therapy
Actions by entities within a system
study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviorism
Behavior
Popular IQ test for children
WISC–V is also linked with measures of achievement, adaptive behavior, executive function, and behavior and emotion. Equivalency studies were also conducted
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children
Social competence assessment
Self-help eating Self-help dressing Socialization skills Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale Gould, J (September 1977). "The use of the Vineland Social Maturity
Vineland Social Maturity Scale
Vineland_Social_Maturity_Scale
IQ test for children
of the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS; Harrison & Oakland, 2003); this pairing can result in information on cognitive and adaptive functioning
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
Wechsler_Preschool_and_Primary_Scale_of_Intelligence
Adjusting to and understanding change in a workplace
disclaiming. Adaptive performance involves a mixture of different coping strategies. Because adaptive performance concerns positive aspects of behaviors, it is
Adaptive_performance
Categorisation of people's intelligence based on IQ
levels of severity are defined on the basis of adaptive functioning, and not IQ scores, because it is adaptive functioning that determines the level of supports
IQ_classification
Phenomenon in which the crowns of fully stocked trees do not touch each other
species. There exist many hypotheses as to why crown shyness is an adaptive behavior, and research suggests that it might inhibit spread of leaf-eating
Crown_shyness
Model of cognition's operation
together. Behavioral dynamics have been applied to locomotive behavior. Modeling locomotion with behavioral dynamics demonstrates that adaptive behaviors could
Cognitive_model
Systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals
), 1977, Handbook of operant behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Staddon, J. E. R. (2016) Adaptive Behavior and Learning, 2nd edition. Cambridge
Behaviorism
Algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run
An adaptive algorithm is an algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run, based on information available and on a priori defined reward mechanism
Adaptive_algorithm
Adaptive behavior by microscopic organisms including bacteria and protists
microorganisms. This includes complex adaptive behavior shown by single cells, and altruistic or cooperative behavior in populations of like or unlike cells
Microbial_intelligence
Practice of animals eating their own mating partners
hypotheses to explain this seemingly paradoxical behavior have been proposed, including the adaptive foraging hypothesis, aggressive spillover hypothesis
Sexual_cannibalism
Aspect of psychology
Sickness behavior is a coordinated set of adaptive behavioral changes that develop in ill individuals during the course of an infection. They usually,
Sickness_behavior
Used to sample the intellectual growth of infants and toddlers
about such behaviors as ease of calming, social responsiveness, and imitation play, and the Adaptive Behavior scale which asks about adaptions to the demands
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
Bayley_Scales_of_Infant_Development
Problem-solving method
formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested. They study the fast and frugal heuristics in the "adaptive toolbox" of individuals or institutions
Heuristic
Class of artificial neural network
"How Hierarchical Control Self-organizes in Artificial Adaptive Systems". Adaptive Behavior. 13 (3): 211–225. doi:10.1177/105971230501300303. S2CID 9932565
Recurrent_neural_network
Phenomenon in plants
paraheliotropism can be viewed as an advantageous behavior in high light environments. Not all plants exhibit this behavior, but it has developed in multiple lineages
Paraheliotropism
Body posture in mammals for sexual receptivity
Posture (Arching the Back) Indicates Sexual Receptivity in Women". Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology. 9 (2): 125–140. doi:10.1007/s40750-023-00212-3
Lordosis_behavior
British cognitive archaeologist
Paleolithic through MET; the results were published in the journal Adaptive Behavior in 2021. Malafouris was a Balzan Research Fellow in cognitive archaeology
Lambros_Malafouris
Proposed cognition of plants
Garzon P, Keijzer F (2011). "Plants: Adaptive behavior, root-brains, and minimal cognition" (PDF). Adaptive Behavior. 19 (3): 155–171. Bibcode:2011AdBeh
Plant_intelligence
Emotion
considered to be an adaptive behavior. Social environment and social emotions being a stimuli for indignation. Our emotions and behaviors adapt depending on
Indignation
Unpredictable phenomenon in complex systems
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Simulation of Adaptive Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 451–461. Alexander, V. N
Emergence
Strategies used to reduce unpleasant emotions
identified four related types: appraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive), problem-focused (adaptive behavioral), emotion-focused, and occupation-focused coping
Coping
Branch of scientific study
from an evolutionary point of view, be more properly regarded as non-adaptive behaviors due to some sort of a cognitive disability, emotional impairment or
Animal_psychopathology
Interdisciplinary study of systems
may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior. For systems that learn and adapt, the growth and the degree of adaptation depend upon how
Systems_theory
Intellectual capacity
interventions (1–3 months), light to moderate intensity activity. Adaptive behavior Adaptive functioning Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Cognition Cognitive Abilities
Cognitive_skill
Species of cockroach
C. (2013). "Changes in Taste Neurons Support the Emergence of an Adaptive Behavior in Cockroaches". Science. 340 (6135): 972–5. Bibcode:2013Sci...340
German_cockroach
Group of conditions resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy
disabilities Adaptive behavior: Poor impulse control, poor personal boundaries, poor anger management, stubbornness, intrusive behavior, too friendly
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder
Communication theory
framework, AET posits that affectionate communication is a biologically adaptive behavior that enhances human viability by fostering relational bonds and promoting
Affection_exchange_theory
3D animation software developed by Natural Motion
animation tool for Microsoft Windows. At the core of the software is an adaptive behavior module that assigns contextual movements to characters based on their
Endorphin_(software)
Applied behavior analysis teaching technique
and a moderate effect on adaptive behavior. However, a 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis found that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another
Discrete_trial_training
Evolutionary process
only be determined after the event. Adaptive evolution in the human genome Adaptive memory Adaptive mutation Adaptive system Anti-predator adaptation Body
Adaptation
Automatically changing parameters, scenarios, and behaviors in video games in real-time
adjustment (DDA), adaptive difficulty, or dynamic game balancing (DGB), is the process of automatically adjusting parameters, scenarios, and behaviors in a video
Dynamic game difficulty balancing
Dynamic_game_difficulty_balancing
Automotive technology
Adaptive transmission control is an automotive technology that continuously adjusts the behavior of an automatic transmission in response to driving conditions
Adaptive_transmission_control
the Society of Adaptive Behaviour meets and produces a proceedings on this topic. This group also have a journal, Adaptive Behavior. Cultured neuronal
Animat
Study of human behavior and cultural diversity
context. Human behavioral ecologists assume that what might be the most adaptive strategy in one environment might not be the most adaptive strategy in another
Human_behavioral_ecology
Application of respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior
Practitioners often use ABA-based techniques to teach adaptive behaviors to, or diminish challenging behaviors presented by, autistic individuals. ABA methodologies
Applied_behavior_analysis
Elongated mouth part
Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Simulation of Adaptive Behavior. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262582179. Charles A. Triplehorn and Norman F
Proboscis
Artificial neural network that mimics neurons
Aplysia-like spiking neural network to generate adaptive behavior in autonomous robots". Adaptive Behavior. 14 (5): 306–324. doi:10.1177/1059712308093869
Spiking_neural_network
American murderer executed in Texas
Scale-III (WAIS-III) and the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS). He determined that Clark had an IQ of 65 and had adaptive skills deficits in the areas
James_Lee_Clark
Common emotional response to opposition
C. Brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non-adaptive behavior blindly: "Either it may have an effect opposite to that of reward
Frustration
Medical condition
with XXXY syndrome exhibit cognitive and behavioral problems. Patients typically show altered adaptive behavior, which is the ability of an individual to
XXXY_syndrome
Swiss neurobiologist (born 1963)
links of causality between the drug-evoked synaptic plasticity and adaptive behavior in mice. Lüscher was born in Bern, Switzerland and grew up there in
Christian Lüscher (neurobiologist)
Christian_Lüscher_(neurobiologist)
the adaptive expert chef clearly demonstrates flexible knowledge and performance of sushi-making. Learning Scientists are interested in adaptive expertise
Adaptive_expertise
Theory in psychology
educational goal(s)." Help-seeking behavior is divided into two types, adaptive and non-adaptive behavior. It is adaptive when exercised to overcome a difficulty
Help-seeking
Process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species
phenotypic divergence is underway. Adaptive radiations are thought to be triggered by an ecological opportunity or a new adaptive zone. Sources of ecological
Adaptive_radiation
association of private mechanisms of the body in a holistic system of adaptive behavioral act, the establishment of "integrative unity". There are two types
Theory_of_functional_systems
Type of control method
law need not be changed, while adaptive control is concerned with control law changing itself. The foundation of adaptive control is parameter estimation
Adaptive_control
Intellectual capacity of the domesticated cat
in urban environments has exposed them to challenges that require adaptive behaviors, contributing to cognitive development. Selective breeding and genetic
Cat_intelligence
dynamic and adaptive behaviors in NPCs. For example, recent research has explored the use of complex neural networks to enable NPCs to learn and adapt their
Artificial intelligence in video games
Artificial_intelligence_in_video_games
Russian biologist and physiologist
its role in adaptive behavior, Elsevier, 592 p. 1974, Biology and Neurophysiology of the Conditioned Reflex and Its Role in Adaptive Behavior. Oxford: Pergamon
Pyotr_Anokhin
Family of beetles
heteropterans in a coccinellid beetle: adaptive behavior and responses of prey attended or not by ants". Behavioral Ecology. 13 (2): 154–159. doi:10.1093/beheco/13
Coccinellidae
simulation to test how smugglers may adapt their methods in response. Information regarding The Modeling Complex Adaptive Behavior Project can be found in The
Smuggling_organization
Field of machine learning
for storage and transfer of knowledge in reinforcement learning". Adaptive Behavior. 27 (2): 111–126. arXiv:1811.08318. doi:10.1177/1059712318818568.
Reinforcement_learning
Machine learning technique
for storage and transfer of knowledge in reinforcement learning". Adaptive Behavior. 27 (2): 111–126. arXiv:1811.08318. doi:10.1177/1059712318818568.
Transfer_learning
British computer scientist
"Evolving controllers for real robots: A survey of the literature." Adaptive Behavior 11.3 (2003): 179-203. J. H. Walker, S. M. Garrett and M. S. Wilson
Myra_Wilson
Architecture that adapts to the environment
that: A climate adaptive building shell has the ability to repeatedly and reversibly change some of its functions, features or behavior over time in response
Climate-adaptive building shell
Climate-adaptive_building_shell
may be defined as "images of adaptive future behavior, hitherto not mastered"; images capable of triggering that behavior in a challenging context. Feedforward
Feedforward (behavioral and cognitive science)
Feedforward_(behavioral_and_cognitive_science)
Species of moth that feeds on fruit (Cydia pomonella)
moth has a widespread distribution, being found on six continents. Adaptive behavior such as diapause and multiple generations per breeding season have
Codling_moth
Combined field of scientific study
cyber rodent project: Exploration of adaptive mechanisms for self-preservation and self-reproduction". Adaptive Behavior. 13 (2): 149–160. doi:10.1177/105971230501300206
Neurorobotics
Involuntary defensive reflex
(2008) A simple Aplysia-like spiking neural network to generate adaptive behavior in autonomous robots, Adaptive Behavior Vol 16, Issue 5, pp306–324.
Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex
Aplysia_gill_and_siphon_withdrawal_reflex
Partial or complete triplication of chromosome 16
mosaic trisomy 16. A case study presenting cognitive functioning and adaptive behavior". Genetic Counselling. 14 (3): 331–6. ISSN 1015-8146. OCLC 210520912
Trisomy_16
Screening assessment for detecting cognitive impairment
Jean-François (2016-07-28). "Cognitive dysfunction in rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder". Sleep and Biological Rhythms. 11 (1): 21–26. doi:10.1111/j.1479-8425
Montreal_Cognitive_Assessment
Allelomimetic behavior, or allomimetic behavior, is a range of activities in which the performance of a behavior increases the probability of that behavior being
Allelomimetic_behavior
Archaeological sub-discipline
lens of the extended mind; the results were published in the journal Adaptive Behavior in 2021. Archaeologist Thomas Huffman defined ideational cognitive
Cognitive_archaeology
Type of operant conditioning
An avoidance response is a natural adaptive behavior performed in response to danger. Excessive avoidance has been suggested to contribute to anxiety
Avoidance_learning
Educational learning method using computer algorithms and AI
Adaptive learning, also known as adaptive teaching, is an educational method which uses computer algorithms as well as artificial intelligence to orchestrate
Adaptive_learning
Psychological framework likening behaviorism to evolution
and ontogeny of behavior. Science, 1966, 153, 1205-1213 McDowell, J. J. (2013). A quantitative evolutionary theory of adaptive behavior dynamics. Psychological
Theoretical_behaviorism
Ability, Capacity for Cooperation, Capacity for Reasoning and Learning, Adaptive Behavior, and Trustworthiness." The main purpose of creating this mobile advancement
API-Calculus
French AI firm
Adaptive ML (often styled as Adaptive) is a private software company based in New York, United States and Paris, France. The company focuses on reinforcement
Adaptive_ML
Emulation of animal or human brain
build an artificial system exhibiting brain-like adaptive behavior, influencing subsequent work in adaptive systems, neural networks, and artificial intelligence
Artificial_brain
American neuroscientist
adapts to a changing world, aiming to uncover internal models and the mechanisms of adaptive sensorimotor behavior in intelligent systems—“adaptive intelligence”
Mackenzie_Weygandt_Mathis
Key tenet of behavioral analysis
(2001). Adaptive dynamics – The theoretical analysis of behavior. The MIT Press. London, England. J. E. R. Staddon (7 March 2016). Adaptive Behavior and Learning
Stimulus_control
Theory of cultural learning in non-human animals
influencing behavioral variation from population to population within a species.[citation needed] Culture is just one source of adaptive behavior an organism
Animal_culture
Set of brain structures involved in emotion and motivation
and its output channels: Implications for emotional functions and adaptive behavior". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 30 (2): 126–147. doi:10.1016/j
Limbic_system
Psychological theory
conscious mind. It is thought to be adaptive as it helps to keep the organism alive. Architecturally, the adaptive unconscious is said to be unreachable
Adaptive_unconscious
Sociological theory
may also contribute to or hinder the development of collective behavior. Complex Adaptive Systems theory – Dutch scholar Jaap van Ginneken (1943- ) claims
Collective_behavior
Learning that occurs through observing the behaviour of others
and a moderate effect on adaptive behavior. However, a 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis found that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another
Observational_learning
Type of animal group activity
Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-2875-7. Staddon. Adaptive Behavior and Learning. Foraging and Behavioral Ecology. Retrieved from: http://psychandneuro.duke
Feeding_frenzy
Branch of psychology
abnormal psychology studies two types of behaviors: adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. Maladaptive behaviors suggest that some problem(s) exist and can
Abnormal_psychology
Collective behaviour of entities that swarm
person. The forming of such swarms is not out of instinct, but an adaptive behavior – a "consensus" – between the individuals within the swarms. It is
Swarm_behaviour
Assessment tool for children with disabilities
indicate more adaptive behavior. Section III addresses potential problem behaviors, and consists of 66 questions. Each question addresses a behavioral issue and
Nisonger Child Behavior Rating Form
Nisonger_Child_Behavior_Rating_Form
American non-profit organization
presence and severity of deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior for the purpose of making a diagnosis of disorders of intellectual
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
American_Association_on_Intellectual_and_Developmental_Disabilities
American evolutionary psychologist (born 1965)
University of Nottingham (1995); research scientist at the Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition at the Max Planck Institute for Psychological Research
Geoffrey Miller (psychologist)
Geoffrey_Miller_(psychologist)
Thought experiment in philosophy
identify mental states with adaptive behavioral output. Behavioralists propose to identify mental states with adaptive behavioral output. Nikolov, Nikita
Philosophical_zombie
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Surname or Lastname
English (Yorkshire)
English (Yorkshire) : habitational name from Hotham in the East Riding of Yorkshire, named from a dative plural hÅdum of an Old English hÅd ‘shelter’.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name from Astbury in Cheshire, named from Old English ēast ‘east’ + burh ‘manor’, ‘stronghold’ (dative byrig).
Male
English
Anglicized form of Hebrew Gemaryah, GEMARIAH means "God has accomplished." In the bible, this is the name of the son of Hilkiah who bore Jeremiah's letter to the captive Jews.Â
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name from any of the various places in northern England named with the dative plural form (used originally after a preposition) of Old Norse hlaða ‘barn’ (dative plural hlǫðum, i.e. ‘at the barns’), as for example Latham in West Yorkshire, Lathom in Lancashire, and Laytham in East Yorkshire.
Girl/Female
Biblical
That makes captive.
Female
Irish
Dative case of Irish Gaelic Éire, ÉIRINN means "Ireland."Â
Biblical
respiration; conversion; taking captive;man sitting in Nob;dweller on the mount, he that predicts;
Surname or Lastname
English
English : topographic or habitational name, ultimately from the dative case, byrig, of Old English burh ‘stronghold’, ‘fortified place’ + man ‘man’.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : variant of Wick 1, from the Old English dative plural wīcum ‘at the outlying farm’.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name from a place in Hertfordshire or Oxfordshire called Albury, from Old English eald ‘old’ + byrig, dative of burh ‘stronghold’.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : variant of Coates, from the dative singular of cote, cott.Americanized spelling of German Koth.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name for someone from Kelham in Nottinghamshire, so named from the dative plural of Old Norse kjǫlr ‘(place at) the ridges’.
Biblical
that makes captive
Surname or Lastname
English
English : variant of Field, from the dative plural of Old English feld ‘open country’.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name from Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire, named in Old English with the (otherwise unattested) personal name Tēodec + byrig, dative case of burh ‘fortified place’.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : topographic name for someone who lived by a meadow. Compare Mead. The form meadow derives from mǣdwe, the dative case of Old English mǣd.
Boy/Male
Biblical
Respiration, conversion, taking captive.
Biblical
who rests himself; who is now captive
Surname or Lastname
English
English : habitational name from a place in Somerset named Bradney, from Old English brÄd ‘broad’ (dative -an) + Ä“g ‘island’.
Boy/Male
Biblical
Who rests himself, who is now captive'.
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Boy/Male
English
Hill of stone, from the Old English 'dun' meaning hill, and stan meaning stone. Famous bearer:...
Boy/Male
Indian
The first Lord, Lord Vishnu
Boy/Male
Tamil
Vishvesh | விஷà¯à®µà¯‡à®·
Lord of the world
Male
Danish
, house wolf.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : patronymic from the personal name Gilbert.Americanized form of Norwegian Gilbertsen or a cognate in Danish or Swedish.
Surname or Lastname
English
English : from Middle English chirie, cherye ‘cherry’, hence a metonymic occupational name for a grower or seller of cherries, or possibly a nickname for someone with rosy cheeks.Probably in some cases a translation name of German Kirsch.
Female
English
Contracted form of English Catriona, CATRINA means "pure."
Boy/Male
Indian, Punjabi, Sikh
Victory of God's Vision
Boy/Male
Sikh
One who has achieved glory, Always famous
Male
Scandinavian
Variant spelling of Scandinavian Hjalmar, HJALMARR means "helmet-warrior."
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
a.
Additive.
n.
Mutual adaption.
n.
The result of adapting; an adapted form.
a.
Suited, given, or tending, to adaptation; characterized by adaptation; capable of adapting.
a.
Of or pertaining to bondage or confinement; serving to confine; as, captive chains; captive hours.
v. t.
To take prisoner; to capture.
a.
Pertaining to adoption; made or acquired by adoption; fitted to adopt; as, an adoptive father, an child; an adoptive language.
a.
Proper to be added; positive; -- opposed to subtractive.
a.
Captive; wretched; unfortunate.
n.
The quality of being adaptive; capacity to adapt.
n.
A captive; a prisoner.
p. pr. & vb. n.
of Captive
p. pr. & vb. n.
of Adapt
a.
Adaptive.
n.
Adaptation.
a.
Adaptive.
a.
In a state of servitude or slavery; captive.
n.
The dative case. See Dative, a., 1.
p. a.
Taken prisoner; made captive; insnared; charmed.
imp. & p. p.
of Captive